Workforce Education Free Essays

Author Note Heartfelt thanks to Dr. Terre Eversden to have given me an opportunity to present a paper on the Adult Educational Philosophies – Benefits and Challenges their involvement in real life scenarios or the environment we live in. The paper captures the benefits, challenges and example to each Adult Education Philosophy i. We will write a custom essay sample on Workforce Education or any similar topic only for you Order Now e. Liberal, Behavioral, Humanistic and Progressive. Abstract An adult education philosophy, or philosophical orientation, is the categorization of an individual’s beliefs, values, and attitudes toward adult education and what the purpose and outcome of adult education should be. In this paper, I shall discuss of Liberal Educational Philosophy, Behaviorist Educational Philosophy, Progressive Educational Philosophy, Humanistic Educational Philosophy and finally Radical Humanistic Philosophy. These are the Adult Educational Philosophies. Benefits and Challenges of each of these philosophies shall be discussed in brief. Keywords: liberal, behaviorist, progressive, humanistic, radical, educational, philosophy Liberal Educational Philosophy The liberal adult education philosophy stresses the development of intellectual powers. Liberals always seek knowledge. They work to transmit knowledge and clearly direct learning. The educator is the â€Å"expert†, and directs the learning process with complete authority. Learning methods used include lecture, study groups, and discussion. Socrates, Plato, and Piaget were practitioners of the liberal philosophy. (Note: Liberal adult education does not refer to liberal political views; it is related to Liberal Arts. ). According to liberal adult education, â€Å"the educated person possesses the four components of a liberal education: rational or intellectual education which involves wisdom, moral values, a spiritual or religious dimension, and an aesthetic sense† (Elias Merriam, 1995, p. 26). Liberal adult education emphasizes liberal learning, organized knowledge, and the development of the intellectual powers of the mind. It also stresses philosophy, religion, and the humanities over science. The teacher is given a prominent place within this philosophy, and must be well-versed in many intellectual interests. Liberal adult education employs heavy promotion of theoretical thinking. This philosophy is suited for adult learners because it requires life experience in order to fully gain from the reflection and contemplation involved in liberal education’s goals. To illustrate the significance of this philosophy, Elias and Merriam (1995) write: As long as the human person does these things [searches for truth, desires to develop their moral character, strives for spiritual and religious visions, and seeks the beautiful in life and nature], the liberal tradition in education will be a potent force.  (p. 42). The negatives of liberal approach are not everyone is critical thinkers and problem solvers and their opinions can be swayed by others. Example: A liberal classroom setting is a more traditional environment. In the classroom you my just have a lecture or even break students or adults into study groups to help each other out. Another option is critical reading and discussion. This approach allows students to free themselves from past experience. They are able to prepare themselves for diversity and change. It teacher teaches them to be critical thinkers and problem solvers. Behaviorist Educational Philosophy A major tenet of behaviorism is the belief that â€Å"all human behavior is the result of a person’s prior conditioning and is determined by external forces in the environment over which a person has little or no control† (Elias and Merriam, 1995, p. 79). Because behaviorism fundamentally aims toward individual and societal survival, emphasis is put on skill acquisition and learning how to learn. Thus, the teacher must create an environment that is optimal for bringing about behavior that ensures survival. The behaviorist adult education philosophy emphasizes the importance of the environment in shaping the learner. The traits of the behaviorist teacher are close to those of the liberal, in that the behaviorist â€Å"manages† the learning process and directs learning. Behaviorist concepts include mastery learning and standards-based education. Some teaching methods used by behaviorist educators include programmed instruction, contract learning, and computer guided instruction. Learners are active and able to demonstrate a measurable, learned behavior. Accountability is an important concept in behaviorism and punctuates that teachers and learners are both accountable for successful learning. Behaviorism is strong in setting clearly defined purposes, learning objectives, and in selecting experiences that work toward those purposes and objectives. Evaluation is valued in assessing the attainment of the behaviors being taught. Vocational training and teacher certifications are both behaviorist practices. Skinner, Thorndike, and Steinberg were believers in the behaviorist philosophical tenet. Example: A good example of Behaviorist is a coach. If a coach tells you what to do then you have to do it, otherwise you won’t get to play. You must practice the task on hand in order to be successful just like in sports. The teacher has to be a manager who directs the learner outcomes and design the environment. Many teachers must be competency-based teacher. Competency-based focuses on outcomes and has a certain curriculum that teachers have to follow to get the outcome that they want. Progressive Educational Philosophy The power of progressivism runs deep in American adult education, as stressed by Elias and Merriam (1995): â€Å"Progressivism has had a greater impact upon the adult 14 education movement in the United States than any other single school of thought† (p. 45). The progressive philosophy of adult education stresses an experiential, problem-solving approach to learning. Like behaviorism, progressivism sees the goal of education being individual and societal. However, the goal of progressive education is improvement rather than survival, which is achieved through liberating the learner. There are five basic principles of adult progressive education. The first is a broadened view or concept of education, meaning that education is not restricted to formal, classroom instruction but is a lifelong process influenced by many sectors of society and daily life. The second principle is a new focus on the learner and the potential of that person to learn more than his or her immediate interests. The third principle is the introduction of new instructional methodologies. Diversifying these teaching methods in turn diversified learner knowledge gained by learning from those methods. The fourth principle is a new teacher-learner relationship that is interactive and reciprocal. The fifth principle is that education is an instrument for preparing learners to change society. Learners of this philosophy need problem solving skills and practical knowledge. They learn by doing, inquiring, being involved in the community, and responding to problems. Teaching methods used in this philosophy include problem solving, the scientific method, and cooperative learning. The educator is an organizer who guides learning instead of directing learning and evaluates the learning process. Progressive proponents include Spencer, Dewey, and Lindeman Example: Progressive setting is showing someone how to frame a wall while constructing a house and then watching them do it themselves. Progressive is showing someone how to do something and then they do it while you guide them through the task. Training and Development in present organizations follow such type of education. Humanistic Educational Philosophy Humanistic education aims at the development of people who are open to change and continued learning, people who strive for self-actualization, and people who can live together as fully-functioning individuals. The humanistic philosophy of adult education follows some basic principles such as the following: human nature is naturally good; freedom and autonomy influence behavior; individuality and potentiality are unlimited and should be nurtured; self-concept leads to self-actualization; perception of the world explains behavior; and individuals have a responsibility to humanity. Foundations of humanistic education lie in the following: the notion of self-concept; that the adult defines himself in terms of the accumulation of a unique set of life experiences; that an adult’s readiness to learn is linked to developmental tasks unique to a stage in life; and that adults desire an immediate application of knowledge. The humanistic adult education philosophy seeks to facilitate personal growth and development. Humanists are highly motivated and self-directed learners; responsibility to learn is assumed by the learner. The humanist educator facilitates learning but does not direct learning. According to Elias and Merriam (1995), â€Å"Humanistic adult educators are concerned with the development of the whole person with a special emphasis upon the emotional and affective dimensions of the personality† (p. 109). The educator and learner are â€Å"partners. † Concepts that define the humanistic philosophy include experiential learning, individuality, self-directedness, and self-actualization. Humanistic teaching methods contain group discussion, team teaching, individualized learning, and the discovery method. Rogers, Maslow, Knowles, and McKenzie are facilitators of the humanistic philosophy. The challenge is as this concentrates on people’s natural desire to learn, the teacher is a facilitator and students relate to past experience with this approach; however, if there isn’t mutual respect between the students and teacher this method will probably fail. Radical Educational Philosophy The radical adult education philosophy promotes extreme social, political, and economic change through education. Radical education does not work within existing social norms or structures, but strives to change those structures. Within this philosophy, the educator and learner are equal partners in the learning process. The educator is the coordinator of the class and makes suggestions but does not direct the learning process. This philosophy embraces concepts such as noncompulsory learning and deschooling. Exposure to the media and people in real life situations are considered effective teaching methods. Holt, Freire, and Illich are proponents of the radical adult education philosophy. Radicalism falls outside the realm on mainstream adult education philosophy, mainly because the purposes of many adult education activities are not parallel with the purposes of radical adult education. Identification of Adult Education Philosophical Orientation How to cite Workforce Education, Papers

Contract Law Text - Justice - and Materials

Question: Discuss about the Contract Law for Text, Justice, and Materials. Answer: Introduction With the growth of eCommerce, electornic communication and contracts have been very common.Davidson (2009) defined electronic communication as the convey of information in many different electronic forms like text, image, video. Electronic contracts are those that are formed with the use of any mean of electronic communication such as email. The use of electronic contracts increased after the implementation of the act "Electronic Transaction Act1999". The main aim of this paper is to discuss the contracts that are created through electronic means or electronic contracts. This paper discusses the differences in the formations of contract via electronic means to the contracts that are made by other ways. It also discusses the validity of offers and displays through electronic media as internet, the way offer and acceptance can take pace, withdrawal of a mistaken offer, legal assistance available to parties in the case of a dispute, and issues related to electronic contracts. Discussion on Electronic Contracts Similarities and Differences: There are some similarities among the contracts that are built through electronic ways or other means. For example, it is evaluated that for the formation of all the contracts including electronic, oral, written, etc. there is need to ensure the availability of basic elements including a valid offer and acceptance, consideration, competent parties, and legal objectives. Additionally, for the formation of contracts, according to the 'Commonwealth law' parties need to provide written information, allow signature that are handwritten, develop a document in a tangible way, and recording and holding of the information. But, in the case of an electronic contract, it is necessary that the parties do all these requirements electronically. There are also some other requirements for the formation of an electronic contract. These include place and time of the dispatch and electronic communication's receipt. It is because if there occurs any issue in relation to the electronic contract, all these terms are used to resolve the dispute. In addition, it is also important for the development of an electronic contract that the offeror and offeree use an electronic channel to make the contract. It is also assessed that for the execution of the electronic agreements, electronic signatures are also necessary to ensure the validity under Australian and international law. In addition to different paper contracts, an electronic contract has also other requirements. For example, the contract must be stored in an appropriate manner and can be assessed after the implementation. Moreover, it is also essential that the parties agreed with each-other to provide or receive the information 'either expressly or impliedly' in an electronic manner. Validity of Offers and Displays on the Internet A range of mediums including newspaper, radio, television, printed catalogues, and internet websites are used by commercial traders to promote their products. Most of the advertisements for the goods' sale are not considered offer, but are referred as invitations to treat. However, in some situations, the advertiser can go further and make an offer. It shows that all the offers and displays on the internet are not actual offers because these are addressed to various unspecified persons and therefore does not demonstrate a purpose by the offeror to be bound by any receiver. For example, 'a manufacturer or the exporter produce a product catalogue for the sale of the goods will not be an offer normally because it is dealt to many unspecified people, and thus does not show an intention by the manufacturer to be bound by any purchase orders arising from the catalogue'. As per the common law, if a proposal deals with more than one specific person, it is regarded just an 'invention to make offers'. The article states that it is essential that a contract specifies the terms of the contract to make it a valid offer. Thus, offers and displays on the internet would normally be an invitation to make the offer, and is not an offer itself, unless there was a statement in it stating that the offeror will do something for a specific considerati on as per the offer. For example, a display on the internet as the offeror will supply the goods at the price stated in the offer will be an actual offer regardless of who accepts the offer. But, at the same time, it is also found that display of goods/services on a website may amount to an offer. For this, it is necessary that the internet site is formulated and formatted in such a manner as to promote the development of contract. Along with the language, which is used for the website, the 'type of website' is also applicable to ensure that displays on the internet are offers. Offer and Acceptance Offer and acceptance in an electronic contract may take place between parties in several ways. The offer may take place in the following way: Offer: The Common Law Position An offer refers to the act of indicating willingness by an individual to another to form a contract. Additionally, it is also important that the offer's terms must be clear satisfactorily to permit a contract to be made through the acceptance without any further talks. Moreover, it is also important that the offeror's intention to be bound by those terms must be clear. To any person, an offer can be made. In contrast, if a proposed offer does not show all these elements, it will be related to an 'invitation to treat', which cannot be enforced due to the lack of a binding contract through the terms acceptance. Additionally, it is also assessed that if common law is implemented to make an offer, there is no effect of the 'The Electronic Transactions Act 1999 (Cth). Thus, it can be stated that by using any method of electronic communication, an offer, which states all the terms clearly can be made by the parties. Acceptance: Common Law Perspective The universal principle is that when and where an acceptance is transmitted to the offeror, a contract is prepared. There is no particular method prescribed by the law for the acceptance of an offer. It is essential that the acceptance must match to the offer and be incompetent in its conditions. There are two situations that offerees can face while accepting an offer. In the first situation, the method of acceptance can be dictated by the terms of offer. For example, the offeror can demonstrate in the offer that the offeree must sent his/her acceptance via reply of the mail by a certain date'. In such situations, the acceptance will only be legal if it follows the terms offered by the contract. Another situation is that no indication of a suitable method of acceptance in the offer. In this situation, the offeree can accept the offer by using the same or equivalent method as followed for making the offer. For instance, if the offer has been ended through the use of an email, an accep tance may also occur through the use of email. Withdraw A Mistaken Offer As per the Commonwealth Law,' an offer become in effect when the another party or offeree receives it'. A mistaken offer can be drawn back by the party in the case when the information about the withdrawal reaches the earlier or at the same time as the offer reaches the offeree. Under Article 24, when the offer for the contract arrives at the offeree either by word of mouth to him or handed over by any other way to him in a personal way, to his mailing address, etc. For example, if a purchase order is sent by an ordinary mail by the buyer, it can be validly withdraw the offer by email earlier the purchase order is received by the seller. Even after 'an offer is received by the offeree, the offeror could cancel the offer, if the revocation arrives to the offeree earlier an acceptance of the offer is dispatched by the offeree'. But, at the same time, if the offer opens for a fixed time period, the offeror cannot revoke the offer during the fixed time period. Availability of Legal Assistance In the case of a dispute in electronic contracts via mail, adequate legal assistance is available. The main purpose of 'the CommonwealthsElectronic Transaction Act1999 (the Act)' is to assist transactions that are made electronically. As per this act, a dealing among parties is not invalid because it happened to a degree or completely by means of one or more transmissions. To handle the disputes, the act considers electronic communication's receipt as well as when and where the contract has been completed '. This act ensures that a deal under a Commonwealth law would not be invalid merely because it was carried on by electronic communication. Additionally, to ensure the implementation of this act and save the parties of the contract, 'the Governor in Council' may make regulations in relation to anything permitted by this act. Issues in the Creation of Contracts through Electronic Ways The Electronic Transaction Act (1999) also considers the place and timing of dispatch as well as electronic communications' receipt. But, it is difficult to determine when the contracts formed through email will be viewed as 'formed'. Therefore, there is uncertainty about the answers of the when and where questions. Additionally, regarding this issue, there is no statute law in Australia or case law exists. Thus, the answers of both these questions create an issue for the formation of contracts by electronic means. Time: In relation to the electronic communications, the act considers 'the time of dispatch (s 14(1) and (2)) andtimeof receipt (s 14(3) and (4))'. The crucial time in the contracts making is acceptance and as per the general rule, it is necessary that there is actual communication of that acceptance. The time of receipt is viewed as to happen 'when the electronic communication enters [the] information system [designated by the addressee] (s 14(3))'. It means that in the case of email, receipt would occur 'when the messageenters the addressees electronic mailbox'.Most of the time, it is difficult to determine when the message is actually received by the offeree. Place: The question of where is addressed by the act as 'Sections 14 (5) and (6) coverplaceof dispatch and receipt of electronic communications. For the purpose to any subsequent jurisdiction issues, the section realizes the importance of place in an specific manner. The act differentiates effectively between the place of transmission or receipt that is viewed for and the actual place where the message is dispatched and/or received. In some circumstances, it is also difficult to find the actual place of the information sent and received. Thus, it can be stated that the time and place related issues are the important issues in forming and handling electronic contracts. Observation At some extent, my views also agree to the discussion in this paper. It is because I also believe that electronic contracts are similar to other contracts as there is need to make a valid offer and acceptance, proper consideration, and legality of the objects. Additionally, I also view that all the offers and displays on the internet should not be considered as the offer until there are some specific terms about the offer. It is because due to just a display on the internet, an individual cannot bind the another person to perform that offer. At the same time, in my opinion, the other methods of making a contract such as written and oral contracts are good in comparison of the electronic contracts. It is because the issues related to the timing and place of making an electronic contract as well as the lack of adequate case laws, discourage me to form an electronic contract. Thus, it can be discussed that to ensure the popularity of electronic contracts, it is essential that there is p roper laws, which address all the issues related to such kind of contracts. Conclusion On the basis of above discussion, it can be stated that electronic contracts are similar to other contracts at some extant as in the formation of these contracts there is also need of a valid consideration, offer and acceptance, competent parties, etc. The main differences are related with the necessity of using an electronic communication and time and place importance in electronic contracts. It can also be stated that by using any electronic communication channel, an offer can be made by the offeror, which also states the terms and conditions of the contract. Similarly, offeree can accept the agreement by using the similar channel. It can also be stated that all the offers and displays are not actual offers until it specifies some terms such as consideration, etc. It can also be summarized that the offeror can withdrawn a mistaken offer before the actual offer reaches to the offeree. In last, it can also be concluded that it is necessary to overcome issues related to time and place in the formation of electronic contracts to enhance their viability. References Australian Government, Ecommerce (2016) https://www.ag.gov.au/RightsAndProtections/ECommerce/Pages/default.aspx Christensen, Sharon, 'Formation of Contracts by Email Is it Just the Same as the Post?' (2001) 1(1), Queensland University of Technology Law Justice Journal 22 Clark, Eugene, Cyber Law in Australia (Kluwer Law International, 2010) Davidson, Alan, The Law of Electronic Commerce (Cambridge University Press, 2009). Delaney, Hayden and Francis, Briar, Electronic signatures and their legal validity in Australia (2016) https://www.findlaw.com.au/articles/5777/electronic-signatures-and-their-legal-validity-in-.aspx Galaty, W Fillmore, Allaway, J Wellington, and Kyle, C Robert, Modern Real Estate Practice in Ohio (Dearborn Real Estate, 5th ed, 2001) Malbon, Justin and Bishop, Bernard, Australian Export (Cambridge University Press, 2010) Malcolm, Jeremy, Multi-Stakeholder Governance and the Internet Governance Forum (Terminus Press, 2008) McKendrick, Ewan, Contract Law: Text, Cases, and Materials (Oxford University Press, 2012) Simone, W B, Hill, 'Email contracts When is the contract formed?' (2001)12(1) Journal of Law, Information and Science 46 Victorian Current Acts (n.d) https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/eta2000345/s15.html.

Violence in Sports Essay Example For Students

Violence in Sports Essay Violence in Sports Brian Thompson American Military University SPMT601 Pamela J. Wojnar Abstract Sports and violence are complimentary to one another. In some sports, violence is merely a byproduct of the competition. In other sports violence is expected. Certain sports require a predisposition toward violence to be successful while others encourage an over-conformity to the norm with regard to violence. The more violent the athlete plays, the better for him and his team. Violent behavior is not limited to the players on field. Fans and spectators can fill a role when it comes to violent behavior. Although it is not expected as it is among the players, fans will engage in violence as a way of expressing, or reacting, to their emotional involvement with the sport. 1. On-the-field violence is related to a number of things including over-conformity to the norms of the sport ethic, commercialization, and masculinity. Which of these factors accounts most for the level of brutal body contact that occurs in professional football in the United States? Explain your choice. We will write a custom essay on Violence in Sports specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Choice: Over-conformity to the norms of the sport ethic is the best choice. Explanation: The reason is that there are certain expectations of competition especially in contact sports such as pro football. To survive and excel in such a physical game as pro football the athletes must maintain over-conform to a certain extent. They must play the game in such a way that they maximize their earning potential. The average life span for a pro player is around 3 years. For an athlete to secure lifelong financial security they must play with a level of physicality that warrants their need to the team. This is a minimum expectation not taking into account other factors such as athleticism and execution of techniques. 2. After reading a report of a male athlete who has assaulted a woman, one of your friends says, â€Å"Playing sports causes men to be violent. † She knows you are taking a course on the sociology of sport, and she wants you to respond to her conclusion. What do you say? Marv Levy, former head coach in the NFL, once said, â€Å"Football doesn’t build character, it reveals character. Much like what is discussed in the textbook of the correlation between success on and off the field is sometimes more related to the fact that the athletes were driven individuals before they played sports, violence is also something that falls into this category. Its is within human nature to inflict pain on others, especially when we compete for the same resources. The boundaries of society suppress the action of this drive to hurt. That is a good thing of course. The state ment â€Å"playing sports causes men to be violent† is not accurate. I believe that men with a more natural tendency toward violence play sports. Sports, especially contact sports, are an outlet for aggressive individuals. Aggressiveness and physicality are both traits that coaches and organizations look for in athletes that play contact sports. So with that being said the tendency toward being violent is apparent before the person ever plays. 3. You are the new principal of a school that is hosting a game between your #1 ranked football team and the #2 ranked team in your division. There is a deep, longstanding rivalry between the schools and a history of player and spectator violence during games. After reading Ch. , what measures would you take to control player and spectator violence on and off the field? There would definitely be a meeting among the coaches involved with our team to clearly explain expectations of the players and staff. Secondly I would personally meet with the athletes to spell out exactly what expect from them in terms of conduct. Letters and phone calls would be made to the parents of the student body letting them know that any conduct that is deemed out of order would be handled by the police officers on duty at the game and the school would bring charges against them. .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .postImageUrl , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:hover , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:visited , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:active { border:0!important; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:active , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Taming of the Shrew1 EssayI would also have hand outs ready for fans as they enter the stadium outlining our procedure for those that violate orderly conduct policies. As a principal, I would attempt to meet with the principal of the other school and ask him to make comparable steps to help ensure the safety of everyone involved. Lastly I would do all I could to make the presence of security personnel such as faculty, staff, and police officers, visible for all to see. Hopefully we could avert any trouble before it happens.

Speech Communities

Speech Communities In the New Merriam-Webster Dictionary a speech community is defined as a socially distinct group that develops a dialect; a variety of language that diverges from the national language in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. Gumperz, Dorian, Fishman, Labov, Hymes, and Corder helped define a speech community. This essay will touch on the basis of multiple aspects of a speech community depending on their similarities and differences as well as how the concepts of these speech communities relate to such articles written by Heller and Jackson.Speech communities are formed by language and social behaviors. Linguistics defines a speech community through many ways. All speech communities have a set of grammatical rules, phonology, syntax, and lexicons. As well as having social norms in which they share through actions. By a person's speech it can give an idea of a person's background in ways of where they are from, how educated one is, as well is if they are friendly or unsociable.Gohar Shahi delivering speech to Sikh Community in...Now linguistic acculturation explains the process when two or more cultures collide for a long time they begin assimilate each other's language. In the most extreme cases of language shifts, pidgins and creoles are developed. Besides linguistic acculturation, the situation of bilinguals, some abandon their native tongue for another. Other bilinguals have a language used within the home different from outside of the home. This mostly refers to dialectal behavior. The second concept is superposed. This occurs when there are different activities going on in the same group.Now Gumperz defines a speech community as "any human aggregate characterized by regular and frequent interaction by means of a shared body of verbal signs and set of from similar aggregates by significant differences in language use" (219). Gumperz feels as if people should share the same norm, communicate regularly, and share...

Pragmatics Gives Context to Language

Pragmatics Gives Context to Language Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social  contexts  and the ways people produce and comprehend meanings through language. The term pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by psychologist and philosopher Charles Morris. Pragmatics was developed as a subfield of linguistics in the 1970s. Background Pragmatics has its roots in philosophy, sociology, and anthropology. Morris drew on his background when he laid out his theory of pragmatics in his book Signs, Language and Behavior, explaining that the linguistic term deals with the origins, uses, and effects of signs within the total behavior of the interpreters of signs. In terms of pragmatics, signs refers not to physical signs but to the subtle movements, gestures, tone of voice, and body language that often accompany speech. Sociology- the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society- and anthropology played large roles in the development of pragmatics. Morris based his theory on his earlier work editing the writings and lectures of George Herbert Mead, an American philosopher, sociologist, and psychologist, in the book Mind, Self, and Society: From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist, writes John Shook in  Pragmatism Cybrary, an online pragmatism encyclopedia. Mead, whose work also drew heavily on anthropology- the study of human societies and cultures and their development- explained how communication involves much more than just the words people use: It involves the all-important social signs people make when they communicate. Pragmatics vs. Semantics Morris explained that pragmatics is different from  semantics, which  concerns the relations between signs and the objects they signify. Semantics refers to the specific meaning of language; pragmatics involves all the social cues that accompany language. Pragmatics focuses not on  what  people say but  how  they say it and how others interpret their  utterances  in social contexts, says Geoffrey Finch in Linguistic Terms and Concepts. Utterances are literally the units of sound you make when you talk, but the signs that accompany those utterances give the sounds their true meaning. Pragmatics in Action The  American Speech-Language-Hearing Association  (ASHA) gives two examples of how pragmatics influences language and its interpretation. In the first, ASHA notes: You invited your friend over for dinner. Your child sees your friend reach for some cookies and says, Better not take those, or youll get even bigger. You cant believe your child could be so rude. In a literal sense, the daughter is simply saying that eating cookies can make you gain weight. But due to the social context, the mother interprets that sentence to mean that her daughter is calling her friend fat. The first sentence in this explanation refers to the semantics- the literal meaning of the sentence. The second and third refer  to the pragmatics, the actual meaning of the words as interpreted by a listener based on social context. In another example, ASHA notes: You talk with a neighbor about his new car. He has trouble staying on topic and starts talking about his favorite TV show. He doesnt look at you when you talk and doesnt laugh at your jokes. He keeps talking, even when you look at your watch and say, Wow. Its getting late. You finally leave, thinking about how hard it is to talk with him. In this scenario, the speaker is just talking about a new car and his favorite TV show. But the listener interprets the signs the speaker is using- not looking at the listener and not laughing at his jokes- as the speaker being unaware of the listeners views (let alone his presence) and monopolizing his time. Youve likely been in this kind of situation before, where the speaker is talking about perfectly reasonable, simple subjects but is unaware of your presence and your need to escape. While the speaker sees the talk as a simple sharing of information (the semantics), you see it as a rude monopolization of your time (the pragmatics). Pragmatics has proved helpful in working with children with  autism.  Beverly Vicker, a speech and language pathologist writing on the  Autism Support Network  website, notes that many children with autism find it difficult to pick up on what she and other autism theorists describe as social pragmatics, which refers to: ...the ability to effectively use and adjust communication messages for a variety of purposes with an array of communication partners within diverse circumstances. When educators, speech pathologists, and other interventionists teach these explicit communication skills, or  social pragmatics, to children with autism spectrum disorder, the results are often profound and can have a big  impact in improving their conversational interaction skills. Importance of Pragmatics Pragmatics is the meaning minus semantics, says  Frank Brisard in his essay Introduction: Meaning and Use in Grammar, published in Grammar, Meaning and Pragmatics. Semantics, as noted, refers to the literal meaning of a spoken utterance. Grammar, Brisard says, involves the rules defining how the language is put together. Pragmatics takes  context  into account to complement the contributions that semantics and grammar make to meaning, he says. David Lodge, writing in the Paradise News, says that pragmatics gives humans a fuller, deeper, and generally more reasonable account of human language behavior. Without pragmatics, there is often  no understanding of what language actually means, or what a person truly means when she is speaking. The context- the social signs, body language, and tone of voice (the pragmatics)- is what makes utterances clear or unclear to the speaker and her listeners.

The major problems that emerged from the fall of the wall for the Essay

The major problems that emerged from the fall of the wall for the newly united Germany - Essay Example Reflecting upon and referring to the events outlined in the lesson, this paper will give the writer’s opinion on what the major problems emerging from the fall of the wall were, and if and how they could have been avoided. The problems Germany faced after reunification arose from the initial causes of the division. Although it was clear by 1990 that both East and West Germany intended strongly to reunite into a common German federal republic, the most notable problems were political, economical and social. In East Germany, not only did the Party of Democratic Socialism undergo heavy defeat in the first free elections, but East Germany’s infrastructure and economy almost collapsed (Muller, Judd & Yzerbyt 2005). East Germany may have been considered the most vigorous economy in the Soviet bloc, but I think it’s economic near-collapse was a manifestation of its shaky and ill-planned communist foundations. Rather than gaining stability from its relative wealth, East Germany’s relative poverty destabilized it. There continued to be different mentalities between those from the East and those from the West. East Germans had been guaranteed the right to work, with 80 percent of its women employed, and outstanding childcare had been provided by the state. In contrast, the West, whose systems were driven by the markets, social services were continuously being cut and getting jobs was difficult. The reunion made it even more difficult for workers from East Germany to get jobs (although those who got them benefited greatly) because they had to adapt to new systems that rendered them insufficiently trained (Muller, Judd & Yzerbyt 2005). My opinion is that this was a consequence of the conception of two new identities which had no roots in the history of the country prior to 1949. Four decades of division had created a social problem in which West Germans (Wessis) were perceived by foreigners as well as most West

Christology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Christology - Essay Example Although all attempts to categorize the views of others risk oversimplification, it is nonetheless necessary to distinguish between and categorize different approaches if we are to evaluate them briefly and effectively. What does this say about Christian mission I do not mean to suggest that evangelization is incompatible with respectful dialogue -- quite the opposite. Although evangelizing calls at times for clarity about the faith that informs Christian action, evangelizing is not the same thing as proselytizing. To evangelize is to witness to the Gospel, and very often the witness that is required is decency, cooperation in pursuit of the common good, and willingness to profess one's own faith truthfully (Haight, 2000, 103-112). In the context of interfaith dialogue, witness to the Gospel should lie precisely in refusing to take advantage of the situation to make converts. But this is the nub of the problem, since it is precisely the content of the Gospel as it relates to dialogue that is in question. (Sobrino, 2002, 42-48) The refu Christology in Contemporary Christianity The refusal to proselytize can only be a witness to the Gospel if the Gospel itself warrants such a refusal. Christians have always understood the Good News as something which demands to be shared with everybody because the salvation it proclaims is addressed to everybody (Hill, 2004, 93-100). If there are times and situations when going out of one's way to make converts is to be avoided for the sake of the Gospel itself, this can only be because the Gospel vision places a high value on respectful dialogue, even on a dialogue that is prepared to continue interminably with no agreement in view. Thinking along these lines, we might say that in Christ the presence of the alien is welcomed and the fact of difference is embraced-this is the Good News that is proclaimed by Christians when they not only live peaceably with nonbelievers but seek fellowship and common cause with followers of any tradition that honors the stranger and says yes to difference. But if significance (or even the me re assumption of religious superiority) is the natural fruit of Christian faith, then the Gospel I have just described cannot be the Christian Gospel. (Snyder, 1988, 54-62) We can also turn this around and say that if philosophical significance does not belong to the essence of Christianity, what we are left with is a Christian Gospel that demands that the church forswear all claims to spiritual privilege, and rejoice as it does so. So, where does the Christian Gospel really stand with respect to philosophical significance As I have suggested, the New Testament itself is unable to decide the question, since it can be read both ways. This collection of mid-to-late first-century texts with widely varying and at times contradictory theological agendas is unified by its persistent claim that Jesus is the Messiah (Snyder, 1988, 54-62). Some would add that it is also unified by the importance implied in this claim about Jesus.