How Aum Shinrikyo could have been defeated Essay -- Terrorism, Kasumig

Aum Shinrikyo On an ordinary Monday morning in 1995, millions of Tokyo residents on the way to work or school boarded trains on the second busiest subway system in the world. Only five people on the trains that morning knew that the events of March 20th would change the lives of nearly everyone commuting that day. Between 8:00 and 8:10 that morning, a simultaneous attack on five deferent cars, all set to converge on the Kasumigaseki station, a key location where several government ministries are located, killed 12 people, and injured another 5,000. The attacks were carried out by members of a religious doomsday cult known as Aum Shinrikyo (Aum), and consisted of vials of the nerve agent sarin thinly wrapped in newspaper. The five men who carried the packages, eleven in all, placed them on the train’s floors and in overhead compartments, punctured the vials with specially sharpened umbrella tips, and exited at the next stop. The sarin liquid leaked and quickly vaporized, making anyone who was near subject to darkened vision, ocular pain, nausea, miosis, hyperaemia, and nosebleeds (Seto, 2001). On that spring day in Tokyo, Aum succeeded in becoming the first non-state sponsored terrorist group to carry out a large scale indiscriminate chemical attack on a civilian population. The events of March 20th were not unprecedented, however. Aum engaged in various forms of biological and chemical attacks for five years before they attacked the innocent citizens riding the subway in Tokyo, however the signs were ignored and the group was able to continue developing deadly weapons and experimenting with effective delivery methods with remarkably little government and law enforcement suspicion until shortly before the 1995 attack. ... ...een of particular note since Japan’s military is limited to a small Self Defense Force, and any legitimate need for weapons coming into the country was well documented. MSO operations concentrated on customs enforcement and shipping in and out of the ports of Vladivostok, Russia, and the major shipping ports in Northwest Japan. As it concerns weapons and military equipment import, MSO is not the only effort that could have been useful. Law Enforcement agencies in the United States, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, were well versed on the threat of domestic terrorism. Liaison between American and Japanese law enforcement agencies could have provided crucial insight to local authorities in how to recognize illegal weapons imports and the significance of such an operation.

The Ascent To Fame of Nathaniel Hawthorne :: Biography Biographies Essays

The Ascent To Fame of Nathaniel Hawthorne  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      The advent of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s recognition by the public as a literary master was long in coming and was not based mainly on the merits of his tales like â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil.† Henry James in his biography Hawthorne from 1879 testifies in eloquent fashion to the state of Hawthorne’s reputation in the 1830’s as a writer: I have said that in the United States at present authorship is a pedestal, and literature is the fashion; but Hawthorne's history is a proof that it was possible, fifty years ago, to write a great many little masterpieces without becoming known. He begins the preface to the Twice-Told Tales [includes â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil†] by remarking that he was "for many years the obscurest man of letters in America." (chap. 2) Later James records the difficulty which Hawthorne had to face at times in getting his works published: Mr. Lathrop learned from his surviving sister that after publishing Fanshawe he produced a group of short stories entitled Seven Tales of my Native Land, and that this lady retained a very favourable recollection of the work, which her brother had given her to read. But it never saw the light; his attempts to get it published were unsuccessful, and at last, in a fit of and despair, the young author burned the manuscript. There is probably something autobiographic in the striking little tale of â€Å"The Devil in Manuscript.† "They have been offered to seventeen publishers," says the hero of that sketch in regard to a pile of his own lucubrations (chap. 2) The Norton Anthology: American Literature states that â€Å"he was agonizingly slow in winning acclaim† (547). Edgar Allen Poe, in a review of Hawthorne’s work, said in Godey's Lady's Book, November, 1847, no. 35, pp. 252-6: It was never the fashion (until lately) to speak of him in any summary of our best authors. . . . The "peculiarity" or sameness, or monotone of Hawthorne, would, in its mere character of "peculiarity," and without reference to what is the peculiarity, suffice to deprive him of all chance of popular appreciation. But at his failure to be appreciated, we can, of course, no longer wonder, when we find him monotonous at decidedly the worst of all possible points--at that point which, having the least concern with Nature, is the farthest removed from the popular intellect, from the popular sentiment and from the popular taste.

Essay --

Explaining Consciousness Provides Physicalism With Challenges That Place Limits On Scientific Knowledge, And What It Can Uncover About Consciousness Consciousness is one of those topics that are in the position of trying to understand one’s own organism with one’s own organism. The topic of consciousness is so elusive that it mirrors child hood games of trying to catch your own shadow. In the World of philosophy, discerning the truth about consciousness is no childish game. Materialist J.J.C Smart and philosopher Thomas Nagel agree that qualia exist, but are diametrically opposed when it comes to what consciousness is. In this paper I will argue for Nagel’s point of view that consciousness falls outside the nucleus of scientific explanation. Physicalism cannot objectively uncover consciousness using scientific methods because consciousness cannot be reduced to material parts. If Smart’s reductionist view points were correct, where as physics can explain all there is to know about everything in the universe, then why does consciousness seem to evade physical laws of investigation? Explaining consciousn ess provides physicalism with challenges that place limits on scientific knowledge, and what it can uncover about consciousness. J.J.C Smart proposes that a scientific explanation of consciousness must fall with in universal physical laws. Furthermore, if science could not explain consciousness within scientific laws, than we would have a problem called a nomological dangler. For Smart, this is unbelievable. It would seem that this move by Smart is one based on scientific bias. The nature of consciousness rests in the experience of the first person account, and if philosophy of mind is to have a complete scientific knowledge of the... ...the sense that they are easily detectable. Physically looking for something that does not have a physical structure is like trying to get rid of the left by going to the right side. Ultimately, science is looking in the wrong direction because it cannot by default take into consideration first person quotes. In conclusion, it is very difficult to come up with scientific solutions to the problem of consciousness. Science may never be able to solve the mysteries of qualia. New methods might need to be introduced to uncover personal experience that lie far off in the future. Philosophers will just need to continue in their search for a complete theory of a science of mind. In addition, humility within the sciences may go along way towards an understanding of consciousness. â€Å" We do not know what consciousness means outside the frame of personality†- Albert Einstein

Challenges in Hrm

Studies in C ontinuing Education, V ol. 23, N o. 1, 2001 Challenges in Human Resource Development Practitioner Preparation ROBYN JOHNSTON University of Technology, Sydney This article describes some of the challenges that confront designers of programs which prepare or upskill Human Resource Development (HRD) practitioners. It surfaces varying perspectives of human resource development and some of the issues that confront organisations in the post-industrial economy which have implications for HRD practice.It also surfaces some tensions and areas of convergence that can be seen in recent studies which have investigated the role of HRD practitioners. The  ® nal section recommends some substantive areas that should be addressed within HRD preparation programs which are designed to equip learners for practice in the current organisational context. ABSTRACT Introduction Organisational learning and skill formation initiatives are increasingly being seen as contributing to the achievemen t of organisational competitiveness in the contemporary economy.As a result, the development of employees has become a more prominent organisational practice. Since Human Resource Development (HRD) practitioners are primarily responsible for employee development there is a need for them to become more highly skilled to ensure that their practice meets the changing needs of organisations. Formal educational programs in the practice of HRD provide a way of assisting practitioners to acquire the skills they now need for effective practice.The design of such programs, however, is problematic given the emergent and cross-disciplinary nature of the  ® eld. This paper surfaces some of the challenges associated with program design for the development of HRD practitioners, drawing from discussions in, and pro ® ling research from, the HRD literature. The  ® nal section of the paper proposes several key areas that need to be addressed in preparatory programs for HRD practitioners.Some D e ® nitions In focusing on the development challenges for such an occupational group, this paper is using ? Human Resource Developer? as an umbrella term to encompass those practitioners whose work within organisations is concerned primarily with improving performance through fostering learning in individuals, groups or the organisation more collectively. Whilst the diversity of practice in the  ® eld is acknowlISSN 0158-037X print; 1470-126X online/01/010037-17 O DOI: 10. 1080/01580370120043231 2001 Taylor & Francis Ltd 38 R. Johnston dged, for the purposes of this paper those working in organisations with positional labels including enterprise trainer, training of ® cer, trainer and developer, learning strategist or consultant, performance developer, organisational developer and staff development of ® cer are being collapsed into one occupational category. All of these labels have been or are being used in organisations and in the literature to designate those whose primar y work is to improve performance in organisational settings through fostering learning (Mulder, 1992).The paper also uses the term Human Resource Development as an umbrella term to describe the work of such practitioners. It therefore considers HRD practice as encompassing orthodox forms of training as well as other forms of employee or organisational development. Challenge 1: what is driving HRD practice? A major challenge confronting designers of programs for HRD practitioners is determining what is driving HRD in organisational settings.Certainly those writing about the  ® eld in both journals and HRD methodology texts provide a number of competing perspectives about this question (Kuchinke, 1998; Barrie & Pace, 1997; Garavan et al. , 1995; Chalofsky, 1992; Watkins, 1989). A brief summary of some of the differing perspectives follows. HRD is Primarily About Meeting Business Needs Through Learning There is a body of literature that argues that HRD is  ® rst and foremost about improving performance through learning-based strategies for the purpose of achieving business goals.This perspective, underpinned by human capital and strategic human resource theories, claims that the real value of HRD practice should be measured in terms of its contribution to organisations as opposed to the value of learning for the individual (Kuchinke, 1998; Stace & Dunphy, 1996; Torroco & Swanson, 1995). It emphasises that HRD activity should provide measurable value-added outcomes that are aligned to the mission, strategic goals and business planning processes of organisations.It also argues that HRD practice is proactive and therefore about anticipating imminent business needs and shaping the organisation’s future through contingency plans that  ® rms can deploy when situations warrant (Kuchinke, 1998; Martocchio & Baldwin, 1997; Garavan et al. , 1995). Such a future orientation means that HRD practice should be about improving the ? exibility and adaptability of wo rkforces and business units and therefore should work in close association with other organisational or business systems, and sometimes customers or suppliers, to help achieve business goals.A business-oriented perspective of HRD would suggest that HRD preparation programs should foreground learning activities that increase learners’ understandings of the functioning and direction of their organisations and the pressures these organisations face. Such programs should build learners’ capacities to diagnose immediate and future organisational skill level needs. They should also provide learners with an understanding of a range of strategies for achieving and communi- Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 39 cating measurable and transparent outcomes in terms of performance improvements that are valued by organisations.HRD is About Fostering Individual Employee Growth and Development Through Learning A competing perspective of HRD is that it is primarily about helpin g individuals working in organisations learn and grow. Although there is debate between those arguing that development practice should be driven by an instrumental competencebased approach and those arguing for a more holistic humanistic approach to employee development, advocates from both camps posit that the major concern of HRD is that of helping individuals and groups learn through formal training or some other planned strategy (Barrie & Pace, 1997;Watkins, 1989). As a consequence, the organisation will bene ® t, but this is secondary, as the main concern is always for the people engaged in the learning. This perspective of HRD argues that learning is the mechanism for empowering individuals by equipping them with skills and knowledge required for technological and occupational change. If practice is driven by a humanistic orientation, it often involves learners planning their own development.It also attempts to enhance the capacity of individuals for critical re? ectivity by recognising that individual identity and growth are integral to learning. On the other hand, when skill formation and learning is driven by a more instrumental approach and based on industry- or enterprise-based competency standards, orthodox training classes and on-the-job coaching and assessment of competencies are common.This emphasis on the need for individual employee growth through learning is sustained by recent organisational literature, which argues that individuals should take greater responsibility for their own ongoing development and career management. Such literature suggests that individuals can no longer expect their employers to take sole responsibility for ensuring employee career development given that contemporary employment is often project based and therefore less permanent.In this scenario, individuals need to make opportunities for their own growth and development and hence should seek individual learning and growth opportunities from HRD activities (Arnold, 1997; Wilson & Barnacoat, 1995; Handy, 1995). This perspective of HRD would suggest preparation programs for HRD practitioners should provide learners with sound understandings of the principles of adult development and learning and with capacities to design development approaches which enhance individual learning and development.HRD is About Fostering the Development of a Learning Organisation This third perspective is found in both management and HRD literature, and is frequently associated with high-performance organisations that are utilising new working practices including the application of more sophisticated production technology, more participative approaches to decision making, team-working structures and more ? exible use of labour. It is also a perspective of HRD practice often found in organisations undergoing signi ® cant structural or cultural change (Marquard & 40 R. JohnstonSofo, 1999; Barrie & Pace, 1997; Field & Ford, 1996; Watkins & Marsick, 1992; Jones & Hendr y, 1992). Such organisations frequently identify themselves as learning organisations or at least indicate that they are aspiring to become learning organisations. De ® nitions and descriptions of learning organisations vary. Most de ® nitions, however, suggest that such organisations have characteristics which include the capacities to collect, store and transfer knowledge which enable them to continuously transform themselves and so attain high levels of performance and competitive positioning.These de ® nitions and descriptions also suggest that learning organisations empower employees to learn as they work both individually and collectively, to utilise technology for more productive outcomes, to strive for continuous improvement, and to critically question processes and work practices and their underpinning assumptions (Denton, 1998; Garavan, 1997; Coopey, 1996; Field & Ford, 1996). Thus, this perspective of HRD advocates that a prime dimension of HRD practice should be th e promotion of a form of collective learning that allows organisations to transform themselves.The focus of the learning organisation approach therefore is on the work team, the business unit and the wider organisation rather than the individual, although individual skill development is still recognised as important. In organisations adopting this perspective the HRD practitioner often works as an internal consultant. This role requires the HRD practitioner to advise teams and business units on problems, assist with the management of change and foster continuous improvement processes and attitudes.There is less emphasis in such organisations on formal training in technical and procedural skills and more on development of behavioural skills and learning though collaborative experiences which occur in the workplace and through work roles. Team building and facilitating change through action learning are common practices for such HRD practitioners (Argyris, 1994). This perspective of H RD also acknowledges that the learning that determines organisational achievement is often tacit or attained informally. Hence, HRD practice involves stimulating questioning about current work processes and creating opportunities for critical re? ction on both explicit and tacit knowledge used as part of work. It may also involve working with managers or supervisors to establish more open workplace climates which can provide for participative decision-making opportunities for employees and which recognise the contribution that difference and diversity can make to workplace outcomes. Programs seeking to develop practitioners with this perspective of HRD should provide learners with enhanced capacities to understand the directions and the dynamics of their organisations, including the work of the various subsystems within their organisations.Such programs should develop in learners an understanding of how to network with and in? uence those working in organisational functions other th an HRD in order to collaboratively achieve the sought-after collective learning. Such learners need to acquire skills in promoting individual and organisational change. This may require developing skills in using traditional upskilling approaches but may also involve HRD practitioners acquiring skills in the design and implementation of less orthodox development strategies to assist individuals and groups Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 41 ollectively to develop new frameworks for understanding their roles, responsibilities and relationships in organisations. HRD? a questionable area of work specialisation A more radical perspective, occasionally found in both popular management journals and some more academic critiques of training and human resources, questions the contribution and position of HRD as a separate organisational function or as a specialist role. Arguments used to advance this position are that, in the downsized, team-based learning organisations of today, s eparate HR/HRD specialists are unnecessary for organisations; that all anagers and supervisors should be the trainers and developers and stewards of their staff; that all employees have a responsibility for their own career development; and that developments in technology such as ? just in time? on-line services, computer-based training packages, ? exible and self-paced learning packages, and computerised HR management systems allow learning to occur anywhere, any time without a trainer or HRD specialist needing to be present (Ulrich et al. , 1997; Goldrick, 1996).Stewart (1996) further illustrates this line of argument, positing that since human resource (HR) practice does not increase competitive business advantage, all HR services, including training, can either be abolished, outsourced or absorbed into the normal roles of supervisors, team leaders and managers. The future for HRD specialist practitioners according to this approach would be as specialist consultants or contract t rainers working for a number of client organisations. The emerging body of literature about learning in small enterprises could also be seen as challenging the need for specialist HRD positions in organisations.Several recent studies examining learning in small business have shown that there is considerable learning through development-related experiences occurring in small enterprises, despite the fact that most lack an HRD function or HRD specialists (Harris & Simons, 1999; Field, 1997; Rowden, 1995; Hendry et al. , 1995). In many small enterprises development occurs because an employee needs to know or be able to do something in order to be useful in the organisation. This pervasive form of human resource development is usually provided by a more experienced co-worker or manager or supervisor and informed by a pragmatic common-sense logic.The reported success of such an approach to HRD for small enterprises could be seen as raising questions about the value of specialist HRD skil ls preparation. Some post-modernist writers also critically question the value and the traditional contribution of the specialist HRD practitioner in the development of individuals or organisations. Such critics seek to interrogate many of the cherished truths trainers hold. For example, they question the idea that competence can be clearly de ® ned and that the values of the workers match those of the organisation.Furthermore, they deny that there is a single best practice and are highly critical of training and development activities which inculcate compliance to organisational rather than individual needs (Garrick & Solomon, 1997; Garrick, 1994). While there is some overlap between the competing perspectives presented above, 42 R. Johnston each perspective could be seen as suggesting a need for a different emphasis or focus for attention in designing programs which prepare HRD practitioners. Alternatively, the existence of these perspectives could be seen as suggesting the need for inclusion of each perspective within such programs.Challenge 2: the changing nature of workplaces Further challenges also exist for designers of any programs preparing individuals for new vocational roles when the sites of such vocational practice are subject to signi ® cant change. Such change can render what has previously been seen as essential working knowledge less valuable, and can create an imperative for new knowledge and practice. As a result, it could be argued that any practitioner preparation only achieves relevance if it addresses at least elements of the changing context of work and occupations.The literature addressing the changing nature of organisations contains a number of interrelated themes that have signi ® cant implications for the role of HRD practitioners and their practice. The following section brie? y considers three frequently occurring themes. Organisational Change Responses for Achieving More Competitive Positioning Recent organisational litera ture has examined the structural and cultural changes made by organisations in response to the more competitive global economy. Some common responses to this environment have included: the move to leaner, more ? xible, less hierarchical, more team-based organisational structures which allow more rapid response to the changing economic environment; the establishment of more dynamic, competitive and participative organisational cultures requiring individuals to be more accountable for their own performance, and the use of more powerful information, management and production technologies (Handy, 1995; Senge, 1990; Kanter, 1989). These responses have contributed to the use of more ? exible employment practices within industries and enterprises that are reducing the opportunities for some individuals to secure permanent employment.Flexibility in employment practice has also produced new conceptualisations of both careers and work itself and has required new understandings of the processe s of career planning and development (Arnold, 1997; Handy, 1995; Hilltrop, 1995; Bridges et al. , 1994; Lawler, 1994; Ostermann, 1988). While there is vigorous debate about the nature and effects of such change there is little questioning that these changes have occurred (Casey, 1999; Tessaring, 1998; Rifkin, 1995; Handy, 1995). In such a changing environment the HRD practitioner faces a number of new challenges.Firstly, they may  ® nd themselves responsible for upskilling employees for new roles which require new mindsets about the way work is to be carried out on the part of employees. The HRD practitioner may therefore be involved in motivating learners to accept new organisational roles and structures and imposed organisational cultures at a time when long-established reward and recognition systems are eroding. Secondly, as time frames for achieving desired organisational outcomes are Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 43 educed, HRD practitioners can no longer rely on using HRD strategies that are reliant on well-established calendars of development events which can be implemented over a long time period. Thirdly, HRD practitioners themselves in this context of change and accountability are increasingly being required to demonstrate their own contribution to the achievement of measurable and valued outcomes for the organisation. These are only three changes that place new demands on the HRD practitioners and require them to have new forms of working knowledge.Formal HRD practitioner preparation must therefore be designed to equip these practitioners with capacity to both anticipate change in the global economic environment and assist with the shaping of their organisations’ response. In so doing, HRD practitioners will no longer be able to rely on traditional models for answers and time frames for action. This presents the challenge of how HRD learners can be prepared so that they are more responsive to the changing context of the environ ment of their organisation and in Rhinesmith’ s (1995, p. 7) words, help them to ? reframe boundaries? and ? develop new mindsets? about practice. Core Organisational Competencies for the Information Age Discussions about the core competencies which organisations need for survival in the post-industrial economy are also prominent in contemporary organisational literature. These discussions frequently emphasise the need for organisations to develop knowledge generation and knowledge management competencies.They also advocate that employees from all levels and from most occupational  ® elds need to see themselves as knowledge workers who require enhanced formal and abstract skill sets (Casey, 1999; Ulrich, 1998; Denton, 1988; Rifkin, 1995). Additionally, managerial and learning competencies are seen as essential core organisational competencies for achieving competitive positioning in the contemporary business environment (Stuller, 1998; Ulrich et al. , 1997; Dunphy et al. , 1997; Boxall, 1996; Prahalad & Hamel, 1990; Leonard-Barton, 1992). Dunphy et al. 1997), argue that an organisation’ s capacity to create and embed learning around the strategic tasks is critical for its long-term performance. To achieve this, they claim organisations (and their employees) require engagement competencies (communication, motivating and enthusing, commitment formation, integration, path  ® nding and enaction), business technology competencies (the business-speci ® c technology through which the organisation creates and delivers value) and performance management competencies (1997, p. 232). Dunphy et al. see the task of embedding such competence as resting with managers.It could also be argued that this task is also a responsibility of the HRD practitioner. This therefore requires the HRD practitioner to have an understanding of these core competencies, the skills to develop the needed competencies in others as well as the skills to ensure that the competenci es are practised by employees. The requirement for new skill sets or competencies once again places pressures on HRD practitioners. One pressure is that they must learn to rede ® ne their own roles 44 R. Johnston as part of the knowledge generation/knowledge management process of an organisation.Some evidence of the value of such reframing of the HRD practitioner role to include knowledge management is already emerging in the US literature (Stuller, 1998). Secondly, HRD practitioners need to assist their trainees to see the value of acquiring and using more abstract skills and knowledge. Thirdly, the call for new forms of managerial competence suggests the need for HRD practitioners to increasingly understand the broad range of attributes and skills comprising successful organisational management and once again to design strategies which both develop such skills amongst managers and facilitate their use.Workplaces and Work Roles as Sites and Sources of Signi ® cant Learning A fu rther theme in the organisational change literature of immediate relevance to designers of preparatory HRD practitioner programs is that which advocates the importance of learning for competitive workplaces. No longer is organisationally useful learning being seen as solely that which is delivered in workplace training rooms. It is increasingly being seen as occurring when employees share knowledge gained through collaborative work experiences, or from discussions with competitors, or gained from ? n line? sources or other electronic data repositories (Marquard & Sofo, 1999; Davernport, De Long & Beers, 1998; Denton, 1998; Rowden, 1995). In some organisations the introduction of performance management systems has further reinforced the notion that the development process takes place within the workplace and the work role. As a result, in many organisations the HRD practitioner is a consultant or coach working directly with individual employees and managers to develop the performance necessary to achieve the strategic goals of the organisation (Marquard & Sofo, 1999).An increased recognition of a need for more effective communication, problem solving, team building and con? ict resolution skills on the part of employees has also been part of the discussion associated with the importance of workplace learning. Newer work behaviours being sought are often based on making more explicit employees’ tacit knowledge about how the organisation operates and a range of interpersonal attributes. Smith and Hayton (1999) suggest that development activities to build these forms of work behaviour are particularly evident within organisations that have ntroduced quality improvement processes and new forms of work organisation. Each of the above themes has implications for the work of the HRD practitioner and in turn for the design of preparation programs for such practitioners. These themes suggest the scaling back of traditional bureaucratic organisational structures a nd the emergence of new forms of employment in which employees play differing roles and complete different work. The themes imply the need to equip employees with a broader range of skills and changed mindsets about the nature of work.Similarly, HRD practitioners require understanding of the newer skills required in organisations and the differing delivery formats which may be more appropriate for the new forms of work. Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation Challenge 3: diverse  ® ndings in pro ® ling studies 45 The previous sections have drawn on those ideas from the HRD, organisation and management literature that have implications for the design of preparation programs for HRD practitioners.This section considers the challenges that arise from the somewhat diverse  ® ndings from recent studies examining the role of HRD practitioners. One of the largest pro ® ling studies of this  ® eld of practice was completed by the American Society for Training and Development ( ASTD) in 1996. From a survey of the membership of this society this study identi ® ed the range of professional competencies that practitioners saw as necessary to meet the demands of a changing society and their changing workplaces.The critical roles that respondents in this study nominated included: providing performance support services (which required competencies in all interventions not just training); using technology for delivery support interventions(which required competencies in technology planning and implementation); managing human performance systems (requiring an ability to apply business system skills); promoting continuous learning at individual, team and organisational levels, and managing change processes (requiring capacities with technologies that facilitate change and change management consulting).The report argued that the critical competencies for practice were: an awareness of industry or corporations including an understanding of vision, strategy, organis ational culture and how to link HRD practice with organisational goals more than ever before; management skills including leadership skills; understanding the customer focus and project management skills; interpersonal skills and technological literacy (American Society for Training and Development, 1996). While this American study would suggest a broadening role for HRD practitioners, some other studies are less de ® nite.For example, Nijhoff and de Rijk (1997) report  ® ndings from a comparative study of HRD practitioners from four European countries. From this study the researchers tentatively reported that training and development and organisational change activities remained the most important parts of the HRD practitioner role. Similarly some Australian studies of the early 1990s also suggested a narrower role than that found in the United States. For example, Moy (1991) analysed position vacant advertisements for HRD practitioners (using a similarly broad de ® nition of this term as used in this paper).Her data revealed that the traditional responsibilities associated with an orthodox training role such as instructing, facilitating, program design and administration continued to rate highly as key responsibilities in advertised positions. She did report, however, a trend towards advisory and diagnostic service and showed that organisational change and development, analysing needs and conducting skills audits, advising on individual career development and strategic HRD planning were amongst the most frequently identi ® ed responsibilities in newly created positions.Another Australian study of the early 1990s, using professional association members from this  ® eld, also found a dominant training orientation for those in this role. This study suggested that there was no indication of a shift towards a broadened 46 R. Johnston HRD role or to role specialisation (e. g. needs analyst, learning evaluator) or to any role transformation as had been pr edicted in some of the literature of the late 1980s (Dunstan, 1993). Later studies, however, have provided some evidence of change in line with the ASTD  ® ndings.In 1997 Anderson and Johnston examined HRD roles and practices, the challenges practitioners faced and the skills and understanding these practitioners perceived they would need for future practice. The sample for this study was very small and may have been atypical in that all participants were completing formal studies in HRD. Nonetheless, the study comprised practitioners with a spread of experience (6 months and 20 1 years of professional experience with a median of 5. 5 years of experience) and from a wide range of industry sectors.Common HRD Practices Findings from this study revealed that the HRD activities were carried out in organisations by both HRD staff from a centralised HRD function and by line staff. HRD activities undertaken centrally included program development, staff induction, career development and m anagement and change management. HRD work carried out by line staff and supervisors comprised mainly individual training and development and performance assessment. Respondents also reported that many others in the more general HR (Human Resources) function had development responsibilities.Other positions with titles such as Capabilities Manager, Performance Manager, Quality Assurance Manager, and Learning Services Manager were further identi ® ed as having HRD responsibilities. The most common HRD activities conducted in respondents’ organisations included: classroom-based group training, assessment of performance or competence, assisting with the implementation of organisational change, program design, HRD budgeting, program evaluation, one-to-one training or coaching.Other HRD activities undertaken in at least 40% of respondents’ organisations included: monitoring organisational change, career planning, facilitating team development, process improvement/quality in itiatives, and internal performance improvement consultancy. Survey respondents themselves were most frequently responsible for group training, program evaluation, one-to-one training, and assisting with the implementation of change. Payroll administration, award interpretation, recruitment, counselling, HRD management, training resource development, and training record systems maintenance were other work tasks nominated by respondents.These  ® ndings could be seen as re? ecting both the broadening in scope of HRD activities and a blurring of occupation role boundaries(especially with generalist HR staff and managers) within organisations. These  ® ndings also re? ect  ® ndings reported by Moy and, to some extent, those of Dunstan of an ongoing reliance on orthodox developmental strategies for many practitioners. Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation Perceptions of Recent and Anticipated Changes 47 This study also gathered data on practitioners’ perceptions of rece nt role change and anticipated challenges.Several themes emerged. The most common perception of role change was the increased demand for a closer linkage between HRD initiatives and the core business of the organisation. Several respondents indicated that they were now required to devote more energy to developing the performance of business units, to place a greater focus on workplace issues, and to be more accountable for achieving outcomes that related to organisational goals. These practitioners stated that they needed to be more aware of business goals, more strategic in their practice, and to take on broader roles in the new ? exible? workplace. A second theme to emerge from respondents’ perceptions of change was concerned with the HRD strategies being used within organisations. Several respondents reported that there was more outsourcing of HRD provision by their organisations, that learning centres, individualised learning plans, open learning strategies were being inc reasingly used and that there was more involvement by managers and line supervisors in HRD activities than there had been in the past.Other responses indicated changes related to the focus on industry or enterprise competency standards and assessment of such competency, to meeting mandatory statutory requirements (e. g. EEO, Occupational Health and Safety requirements), to multi-skilling and to the facilitation of organisational change. A small number of respondents also suggested that they were being required to work longer hours with reduced budgets.Anticipated challenges nominated by respondents included preparing the organisation for technological change and the need to adapt to changing learning and development technologies (e. g. computer-based, interactive learning technologies, multimedia and open learning). Several respondents also indicated that they anticipated that their role would require them to address the issue of development of part-time and contract employees. Perf ormance-based training, managing organisational change, and the move to team-based organisational structures were other challenges that respondents anticipated facing.Several expected that they would have to justify the maintenance of the HRD department and its existing budget, and predicted the possibility of further outsourcing of the HRD function. Skills and Understandings Needed for HRD Practice The  ® nal question in the study asked respondents to nominate the skills and understandings they felt were most needed to operate effectively as an HRD practitioner. Communication skills were the most frequently identi ® ed, with responses suggesting a need for both general communication skills and more speci ® c skills in areas such as negotiation and group management.A second cluster of responses related to the traditional skills of training, with respondents listing competencies connected with instruction, facilitation, program design and training needs analysis. A third cluste r of competencies was concerned with organisational awareness. Skills here included planning skills, knowledge of corporate culture, manage- 48 R. Johnston ment of projects, time and resources as well as general administration, budgeting and marketing skills. Other respondents indicated the need for well-developed skills in analysis, investigation, problem solving and consultancy.In the following year, Kostos (1998) reported a further set of pro ® ling  ® ndings from a focus group of learning and development professionals with varying levels of responsibility from within both large corporations and small business. This study revealed that there was a de ® nite shift in the skill requirements of people currently involved in the  ® eld with the greatest change being ? in the area of trainer to consultant? (p. 19). Her study also found that the learning and development function equired professionals to be more aware of business issues in order to make the linkages in the delive ry of learning. Skills in consulting, high-level communication, analysis, resource and project management, using behavioural transformation approaches, organisational development and managing change, use of new technologies, and managing cultural diversity were also required. Participants also nominated the need for a re ® ned capacity for knowledge management. To summarise brie? y, the pro ® ling studies reveal some evidence of change in the HRD practitioner role.While the traditional practices of training and development still constitute major tasks of this role, there is evidence of the need for HRD practitioners to have an enhanced capacity to operate strategically. As such, HRD practitioners could be seen as requiring an increased understanding of the organisational drivers and the capability to work with the dynamics that operate within speci ® c organisational settings. These studies also highlight the ubiquity of change in organisations and the need for practitioners t o be able to work within and develop others within a change context.These studies could be seen as presenting the designer of HRD preparation programs with the challenge of providing learners with both the traditional skills associated with training and development using a classroom-based delivery mode as well as the skills to use alternative strategies both to improve performance in line with business goals and to assist both organisations and individuals to manage change. Some Implications for Preparation of HRD Practitioners The preceding sections of this paper have identi ® ed some of the challenges that confront those who are developing programs to enhance the skills of HRD practitioners.These challenges have been identi ® ed from an analysis of recent literature. There is also some convergence in this literature about the skills and understanding that are needed for contemporary HRD practice which can be used as a guide for determining the content of preparation programs i n HRD. This  ® nal section highlights some of the areas that could feature in such programs. HRD Preparation Programs Should Foreground the Context of Practice There is ample evidence, both from the theoretical discussions of the  ® eld and the pro ® ling studies cited, of the importance of organisational awareness for HRD practitioners.Such evidence suggests that this aspect should be foregrounded in Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 49 HRD development programs in order to assist learners to work strategically and overtly align their practice with organisational directions and the achievement of organisational goals. Even though it can be anticipated that many learners undertaking such formal programs will have had some experience within organisations, developing skills in organisational analysis, strategic thinking and planning, translating business objectives into action,  ® nancial awareness and planning would seem valuable.Similarly, there would seem to be a ne ed for students to be able to develop the communicative capacity to establish the alignment between HRD initiatives and organisational goals at both interpersonal and organisational levels to avoid being marginalised at best or replaced at worst. HRD Preparation Programs Should Address Traditional Training Areas Such as Presentation, Program Design, Needs Analysis and Training Evaluation Pro ® ling studies from Australia and Europe clearly show that the more traditional areas of training/HRD practice are still common HRD activities.It cannot be assumed, however, that the technologies associated with best practice orthodox training are well known or well practised, as many practitioners come into HRD practice as a second career resulting from the expertise they have displayed in a technical or functional role. To better equip practitioners who have entered the  ® eld in this way, program designers need to ensure that their learners develop capacities to implement the learning tec hnologies and strategies (including design as well as delivery and evaluation strategies) that are used within organisational settings.These should include, but also go beyond, the traditional classroom-based models of instruction. Skills in developing employees at their work site are being increasingly required as the workplace becomes the source of working knowledge. Similarly, as some of the studies discussed above show, skills in designing electronically provided learning experiences become pivotal as learning becomes a process that is called up when needed rather than an activity attended when directed. Even with the shift in some HRD work from the specialist HRD function to workplace-based supervisor or onsultant/coach (Kostos, 1998) there is still a need within organisations for expertise in accurate training and development needs analysis and in the design of effective development and support experiences that are appropriate for the learner and the task. HRD Preparation Prog rams Should Foster Capacity of HRD Practitioners to Become Managers of Change A theme pervading most current organisational literature is the need to recognise that organisational change will be a continuing and accelerating feature of post-industrial society.Respondents in the pro ® ling studies also indicated that they anticipated playing a role in implementing organisational change as well as confronting change both in terms of the learning and organisational technologies they would be using. Such  ® ndings would therefore suggest there is a strong need for HRD students to gain a sound understanding of the diverse dimensions of change that 50 R. Johnston impact on their role, and to develop the capacity to assist with the design and implementation of individual and organisational change.HRD Preparation Programs, Particularly for the Australian Context, Should Provide Some Focus on Competency-based Training, Workplace Assessment and Performance Assessment The notion of compete ncy-based training and the process of developing industry competency standards were features of industry training and skill formation policies in the early 1990s in Australia. This approach to training subsequently became a major feature of much vocational training conducted in educational institutions within Australia. The level of adoption of this approach within enterprises is not so clear.For example, a large study of enterprise training in Australia in 1996 by Smith and Hayton (Smith & Hayton, 1999) revealed that most of the enterprises in their sample were not using competency standards to guide their training activities, and that the incidence of competency-based training in enterprises was very low. They did comment, however, that there were notable exceptions in their sample. The study by Anderson and Johnston (1997) cited earlier, however, suggests that some elements of competency-based approaches were being enacted in organisations.A number of respondents in this study in dicated that assessment of competencies/capabilities/performance was a common HRD activity in their organisations. More extensive evidence indicating support by Australian enterprises for competency approaches is reported in a study of 350 companies completed in 1999. Seventy per cent of the respondents in this study indicated that they supported a competencybased training approach for their employees, even though not all companies supported the use of formally developed national industry competency standards.Some companies reported developing standards for their own organisational contexts (Allan Consulting Group, 1999). Despite some of the contradictions in these  ® ndings, it could be argued that HRD preparation programs should provide learners with understandings of issues and processes associated with competency-based training and assessment, as elements of the approach are being used to varying degrees within organisations in Australia.Similarly, calls for the use of perform ance management approaches and the need for performance management and improvement competencies in HRD practitioners (American Society for Training and Development, 1996; Dunphy et al. , 1997) could be seen as reinforcing the argument for enhancing skills in developing performance standards and assessing competence in performance in HRD learners. HRD Preparation Programs Should Equip Practitioners to Prepare Employees for New Forms of Career Planning The literature that discusses the changing world of organisations and work predicts the disappearance of career structures as we know them.It has also suggested that the individual employees will need to develop an expanding portfolio of skills for ongoing employment in the contemporary workforce (Handy, 1995; Lawler, 1994). Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 51 This suggests, therefore, that HRD preparation should equip learners with the capacities to understand and utilise the processes of multi-skilling employees as well as f acilitating individual career interventions. Such skill on the part of the HRD practitioner will allow for more ? exible use f organisational workforces as well as enhancing the employability of individuals both within and outside organisations. Career planning emerged fairly strongly from some of the pro ® ling studies as an important competence for HRD practice. This evidence suggests that some of the tools of the practice associated with this area need to be addressed in the preparation of HRD practitioners. Such preparation may also be salient for the practitioners themselves, as their own careers in HRD will also be subject to the same forces of change as many of the employees in the organisations in which they work.HRD Programs Should Recognise that Those in this Field of Practice are not Located Solely Within a Specially Designated HRD Function Employee development is occurring at various levels in organisations and hence students participating in preparation programs may h ave a range of organisational responsibilities and work backgrounds. This could also suggest that in the preparation of HRD practitioners there is a need to provide education in other HR disciplines in order to provide participants with a broad framework for practice.Similarly, there is a need to help participants develop the capacity to work in close association with those in other positions within organisations, as employee and organisational development initiatives are frequently shared. Conclusion This paper has attempted to foreground some of the challenges that confront designers of preparation programs for human resource developers. These challenges arise from the contested perspectives of HRD, the complexity of the sites of HRD practice, and the divergence in  ® ndings in recent pro ® ling studies of the  ® eld.There is also a degree of convergence in the writing and research about the  ® eld which would seem to suggest that the role scope and hence required working knowledge and skill of HRD practitioners is broadening. This convergence provides a basis for determining the substantive content needed for formal preparation programs for practitioners from this  ® eld. There remains, however, a need for further research into the role of HRD practitioners in contemporary organisations and the practice skills and working knowledge HRD practitioners require.Such research will contribute to the development of relevant preparatory educational programs and may also lead to increased recognition of the role that HRD practitioners play in the achievement of effective organisational practice. Address for correspondence: Robyn Johnston, Faculty of Education, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. E-mail: Robyn. [email  protected] edu. au 52 R. Johnston References ALLAN CONSULTING GROUP. (1999). Training to compete: The training needs of industry. Report to the Australian Industry Group. NSW, Australian Industry Gro up.AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT (ASTD) (1996). ASTD report: Competencies for HRD practitioners. Training and Development in Australia, 23(3), 25 ± 30. ANDERSON , G. & JOHNSTON , R. (1997). Human resource development: Developing developers in a changing landscape. Paper presented at the 5th International Conference on Post Compulsory Education and Training, Grif ® th University, Qld, Australia. ARGYRIS, C. (1994). The future of workplace learning and performance. Training and Development Journal, 48(5), 36 ± 47. ARNOLD, J. (1997). Managing careers into the 21st century.London: Paul Chapman. BARRIE, J. & PACE, W. (1997). Competence, ef ® ciency and organizational learning. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 8(4), 335 ± 342. BOXALL, P. F. (1996). The strategic HRM debate and the resource based view of the  ® rm. Human Resources Management Journal, 6(3), 59 ± 75. BRIDGES, W. et al. (1994). The future of workplace learning and performance. Training and D evelopment Journal, 48(5), 36 ± 47. CASEY, K. (1999). The changing contexts of work. In D. BOUD & J. GARRICK (Eds), Understanding learning at work. London: Routledge. CHALOFSKY, N. (1992).A unifying de ® nition for the human resource development profession. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 3(2), 175 ± 182. COOPEY, J. (1996). Crucial gaps in the learning organisation: Power, politics and ideology. In K. STARKEY (Ed. ), How organisations learn. London: International Thomson Business Press. DAVERNPORT, T. H. , DE LONG, D. W. & BEERS, M. C. (1998). Successful knowledge management projects. Sloan Management Review, Winter, 43 ± 54. DENTON, J. (1998). Organisational learning and effectiveness. London: Routledge. DUNPHY, D. , TURNER, D. & CRAWFORD, M. (1997).Organizational learning as the creation of corporate competences. Journal of Management Development, 16(4), 232 ± 242. DUNSTAN, B. (1993). Views for the training and development workplace: A report of practitioner survey  ® ndings. Sydney: AITD. FIELD, L. (1997). Training and learning in small business: Issues for research (pp. 1 ± 21). Sydney: Research Centre for Vocational Education and Training, University of Technology Sydney. FIELD, L. & FORD, B. (1996). Managing the learning organisation. Melbourne: Longman. GARAVAN, T. (1997). The learning organisation: A review and evaluation.The Learning Organization, 4(1), 18 ± 29. GARAVAN, T. N. , COSTINE, P. & HERATY, N. (1995). The emergence of strategic human resource development. Journal of European Industrial Training, 19(10), 4 ± 10. GARRICK, J. (1994). Postmodern doubts and ? truths? about training. Studies in Continuing Education, 16(2), 127 ± 142. GARRICK, J. & SOLOMON, N. (1997). Technologies of compliance in training. Studies in Continuing Education, 19(1), 19. GOLDRICK, P. (1996). Don’ t shoot the messenger. Australian Training Review, 21, 8 ± 11. HAMEL, G. & PRAHALAD, C. K. (1994). Competing for the future.Boston: Harvard Business School. HANDY, C. (1995). Beyond certainty: The changing worlds of organisations. London: Hutchinson. HARRIS, R. & SIMONS, M. (1999). Rethinking the role of workplace trainer: Building a learning culture. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference on Post Compulsory Education and Training, Grif ® th University, Queensland, Australia. HENDRY, C. , ARTHUR, M. & JONES, A. (1995). Strategy through people: Adaptation and learning in the small ± medium enterprise. London: Routledge. HILLTROP, J. (1995). The changing psychological contract: The human resource challenge of the 1990s.European Management Journal, 13(3), 286 ± 294. JONES, A. & HENDRY, C. (1992). The learning organization: Review of the literature and practice. Coventry: Warwick Business School, University of Warwick. Challenges in HRD Practitioner Preparation 53 KANTER, R. (1989). When giants learn to dance. New York: Simon & Schuster. KOSTOS, C. (1998). Issues facing learning and development profession als. Training and Development in Australia, 25(5), 19 ± 20. KUCHINKE, K. P. (1998). Moving beyond the dualism of performance versus learning: A response to Barrie and Pace.Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9(4), 377 ± 384. LAWLER, E. E. (1994). From job-based to competency-based organizations. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 15, 3 ± 15. LEONARD-BARTON, D. (1992). Core capabilities and core rigidities: A paradox in managing new product development. Strategic Management Journal, 13, 111 ± 125. MARQUARD, M. & SOFO, F. (1999). Building the learning organisation: Best practice from around the world. In F. SOFO (Ed. ), Human resource development perspectives, roles and practice choices (pp. 321 ± 336). NSW: Business and Professional Publishing. MARTOCCHIO, J. J. BALDWIN, T. T. (1997). The evolution of strategic organizational training. Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, 15, 1 ± 46. MOY, J. (1991). Human resource development practitioner roles and com petencies: An analysis of recent research. Asia Paci ® c HRM, 29(4), 7 ± 23. MULDER, T. (1992). Towards a comprehensive research framework for training and development in business and industry. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 1(2), 104 ± 114. NIJHOF, W. & DE RIJK, R. (1997). Roles, competences and outputs of HRD practitioners: A comparative study in four European countries.Journal of European Industrial Training, 21(6/7), 247 ± 255. OSTERMANN, P. (1988). Employment futures, reorganization, dislocation, public policy. London: Oxford University Press. PRAHALAD, C. K. & HAMEL, G. (1990). The core competence of the organization. Havard Business Review, 68, 79 ± 91. RHINESMITH, S. (1995). Open the door to a global mindset. Training and Development, May, 49(5), 35 ± 43. RIFKIN, J. (1995). The end of work? The decline of the global labour force and the dawn of the post market era. New York: G. P. Putman’ s Sons. 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King Of The Castle

The settings in Im the ability of the castling beautifully portrays on how the graphic symbol t unriv eithered of voices and thinks, she does this by having lucid themes that visualise emotions of the typefaces reflecting onto the theme. This message the reader spate feel the aura plainly passim the fabrication. In the wise on that point is one main theme of which is establish approximately hat redness between hooper and Kingshaw. consecutive from the start of when they meet hooper come acrosss legitimate to permit his timbers be sh let. so through by the overbold Kingshaw and hooper be continuously battling from each one other, hooper straight takes the intent of being a bully.At Warings domicil the setting shows that it isnt a real pleasant place to plosive consonant in, the digest lacks the warmth and homeliness of a beseeming home. Warings was ugly. It was entirely unpleasing, rather long-stalked and bad angled, built of unknown red brick. At the front, and on both sides, thither was the lawn, slope downwards to a graveled drive, and accordingly into the lane, and with prohibited whatsoever tree or flower-bed to quench the brazen-faced greenness. the domiciliate being do of bad red bricks contri savees a in truth imposing, kind colour. The abide was unendingly uncomfortable and it looked graceless and boring this do Kingshaw feel as he was non at home.The fashion in which he had enlistmented in always had a presence of close payable to the gloomy and morbid atmosphere. He lacked the grapple he desired and was left hand with the dread(prenominal) feeling of isolation in his own mind. The house built badly can contri neverthelesse to the novel that no cargon was given into building the house including no love, this could reflect on hooper who stayed in the house which was however exposed to finis and power. Kingshaw plays the role of a very debilitated character that is locked in his imagination. h e has irrational number idolizes.although this might be normal for well-nigh children, his fears be so crippling they be farther beyond the typical child give circumspection incubus as one of the exemplars are fears of travel pools. early in the reserve Kingshaw is taken to a pool by his receive he feared the water exceptionally, not only because he couldnt swim hardly, to a fault because of its glassy, bleached blueness and he too feared how batch looked huge, pale swolen underneath. another fear that kingshaw has is the fear of defunct thing like shoot a lines, he describes them as having ragged gruesome wing and small, glinty eyes.Kingshaw would constantly take a crap his fears work by hop-picker during the novel. one drill of this is when he brings kingshaw to the Red agency to show him the moths, it seems that hooper just wants to show off. but her today recognises that Kingshaw is afraid when, upon him seeing the moths, kingshaw pull in his breath sharply. Hooper realises this past mocks him and tries to tell him to touch one. Kingshaw tries really severe not to touch it but hopper watches him and runs out of the room, locking the entre basis him.another example of hoopers cold-blooded actions is when his guest, Kingshaw arrives he today tries to make Kingshaw feel unwelcome so far originally Kingshaw gets through the front door by throwing a lump of plasticine that reads I DIDNT WANT YOU TO COME present. At one point kingshaw refractory to seek around the surroundings but on his way screening a hovering crow attacks him hooper then finds out kingshaws fears of dead things, by and by on hooper takes a stuffed crow and attempts to stir kingshaw, Kingshaw knew the crow was not real, that it was stuffed and dead. in that location are alot of dead things around the house this made Kingshaw feel even much miserable.After a while in the novel the author has shown us how much Kingshaw dislike militants, and how it w as so unbearable for Kingshaw to stay there, he presently decided to following his miseries and hopefully fine what he has longed for which was liberatedom, he sets out but then is stop when he is attacked by a crow. he is in shock and frightened and has no sentiment what will happen undermentioned but still continues to go.He thinks he is free and starts to dupe sex his freedom Kingshaw didnt look back this shows how convinced he is about escaping from hopper and his mischievous. Hangwood is where Kingshaw beatd to he enjoyed it there collectible to the feeling that he was completely dark and everything around him seemed innocent and pure. when Kingshaw had foremost stepped into the woodland it looked dark and gloomy he was scare and plan of the forest as a minacious place.When he finally makes his escape the first thig he sees is the dead pika this is a foreshadow of his remainder in the future. Kingshaw soon becomes obsessed with the river and doesnt want to yie ld all of this foreshadows kingshaws death. Symbolism is a central manner of writing that susan hill uses. this helps us to have a more deeper consciousness of the novel and portrays power and the ability to open up darker separate of their personality. for example when Kingshaw saw the yew trees it would present death because yew trees are usually demonstrate in cemeteriesKing of the CastleThe settings in Im the King of the castle beautifully portrays on how the character feels and thinks, she does this by having lucid themes that show emotions of the characters reflecting onto the theme. This means the reader can feel the atmosphere seemingly throughout the novel. In the novel there is one main theme of which is based around hatred between hooper and Kingshaw. straight from the start of when they meet hooper makes sure to let his feelings be shown. so throughout the novel Kingshaw and hooper are continuously battling each other, hooper immediately takes the role of being a b ully.At Warings house the setting shows that it isnt a very pleasant place to stay in, the house lacks the warmth and homeliness of a proper home. Warings was ugly. It was entirely graceless, rather tall and badly angled, built of dark red brick. At the front, and on both sides, there was the lawn, sloping downwards to a graveled drive, and then into the lane, and without any tree or flower-bed to relieve the bald greenness. the house being made of dark red bricks contributes a very imposing, blood colour. The house was always comfortless and it looked graceless and boring this made Kingshaw feel as he was not at home.The room in which he had stayed in always had a presence of death due to the gloomy and morbid atmosphere. He lacked the love he desired and was left with the dreadful feeling of isolation in his own mind. The house built badly can contribute to the novel that no care was given into building the house including no love, this could reflect on hooper who stayed in the ho use which was only exposed to death and power. Kingshaw plays the role of a very weak character that is locked in his imagination. he has irrational fears.Although this might be normal for most children, his fears are so crippling they are far beyond the typical childish nightmare as one of the examples are fears of swimming pools. early in the book Kingshaw is taken to a pool by his father he feared the water exceptionally, not only because he couldnt swim but, also because of its glassy, artificial blueness and he also feared how people looked huge, pale swolen underneath. another fear that kingshaw has is the fear of dead thing like crows, he describes them as having ragged black wings and small, glinty eyes.Kingshaw would constantly get his fears exploited by hopper during the novel. one example of this is when he brings kingshaw to the Red Room to show him the moths, it seems that hooper just wants to show off. but her immediately recognises that Kingshaw is afraid when, upon h im seeing the moths, kingshaw drew in his breath sharply. Hooper realises this then mocks him and tries to order him to touch one. Kingshaw tries really hard not to touch it but hopper watches him and runs out of the room, locking the door behind him.Another example of hoopers cold-blooded actions is when his guest, Kingshaw arrives he immediately tries to make Kingshaw feel unwelcome even before Kingshaw gets through the front door by throwing a lump of plasticine that reads I DIDNT WANT YOU TO COME HERE. At one point kingshaw decided to explore around the surroundings but on his way back a hovering crow attacks him hooper then finds out kingshaws fears of dead things, later on hooper takes a stuffed crow and attempts to scare kingshaw, Kingshaw knew the crow was not real, that it was stuffed and dead. there are alot of dead things around the house this made Kingshaw feel even more miserable.After a while in the novel the writer has shown us how much Kingshaw disliked Warrings, and how it was so unbearable for Kingshaw to stay there, he soon decided to pursuit his miseries and hopefully fine what he has longed for which was freedom, he sets out but then is stopped when he is attacked by a crow. he is in shock and frightened and has no idea what will happen next but still continues to go.He thinks he is free and starts to enjoy his freedom Kingshaw didnt look back this shows how convinced he is about escaping from hopper and his mischievous. Hangwood is where Kingshaw take flight to he enjoyed it there due to the feeling that he was completely hidden and everything around him seemed innocent and pure. when Kingshaw had first stepped into the forest it looked dark and gloomy he was scared and thought of the forest as a threatening place.When he finally makes his escape the first thig he sees is the dead rabbit this is a foreshadow of his death in the future. Kingshaw soon becomes obsessed with the river and doesnt want to leave all of this foreshadows kingshaw s death. Symbolism is a key method of writing that susan hill uses. this helps us to have a more deeper understanding of the novel and portrays power and the ability to unlock darker parts of their personality. for example when Kingshaw saw the yew trees it would symbolise death because yew trees are usually found in cemeteries

Globalization and International Business Essay

orbiculateisation and planetary choreThe C one timept of ball-shapedization putting everything into whiz vill fester* The bidding of integration and convergence of sparing, monetary, heathenish and policy- devising forms flummoxwise the world. * sphericization refers to the integration and interaction surrounded by different plurality and nations. * worldwideization is the physical process of worldwide integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas and an some early(a)(prenominal) aspects of finishing.globalization A holistic approach1. scotchal Globalization the increasing integration of subject frugal systems through the increase in inter matter good deal, invest fitforcet fundss and large(p) diminish. 2. Financial Globalization the liberalization of outstanding purports and deregulations, peculiarly of financial assist that led to a mutation in cross boarder capital flows. 3. pagan Globalization convergence of l asts across the world E.g. come codes, ship canal of alive. 4. political relational Globalization the convergence of political systems and processes about the world.Dimensions of frugal Globalization what has changed* Globalization of output signal the change magnitude mobility of the factors of outturn especially the movement of capital that has changed countries traditional specialization roles. (process is made shorter and cheaper) * Globalization of Markers expert strides in communication, transport and travel flummox beatd natural consumer elements. The global marketplaces baffle perish easily inletible. (producing regularize products that atomic number 18 advanced, functional reliable and low damaged).* Globalization of challenger it has intensified in such(prenominal) a way that demarcationes be stickd to path mergers or enter into newborn strategic alliances, competing with new players roughly the globe.* Globalization of technology it has a dvanced rapidly and frankincense cr consume shorter cycles for output of considerablys and go. The running of headachees bring forths much than effective and efficient. In some cases though, several(prenominal) transactiones might live clog keeping up with the advancements due to financial constraints.* Globalization of corporations and Industries sparing liberalization has led to stinting growth in Foreign Direct investitures and relocation of commercial enterprise enterprises as a result, there has been fragmentation in business processes. Where different stages of fruit argon coming out in different countries E.g. Toyota manufactures in lacquer and assembles in South Africa.Factors influencing Globalization (M overs)* sparing relaxation method* Technological Breakthrough* Multilateral Institutions* outside(a) stinting integrations* Move towards redundant selling systems* Rising enquiry and organic evolution costs* Global expansion of business operations* A dverts in logistics management* Emergence of the global customer segmentFactors restraining Globalization* Regulatory controls* emerge shift barriers* ethnic factors* Nationalism* War and civilized disturbances* Management myopia thinking in spite of appearance the knock/boardersQuiz what is meant by internationalization of a degenerates observe chain?Reasons for support of Globalization* Maximization of frugal efficiencies ( hit the booksing to use stintingresources of a kingdom to the fullest electromotive take in) * Enhancing treat* Increase cross-boarder capital movement* Improves efficiency of topical anaesthetic firms* Increases consumer welf atomic number 18Criticism of globalization* Developed Vs Developing countries unequal players in globalization * Widening gap between the rich and brusk* Wipes out interior(prenominal) industry* Leads to massive layoffs and unemployment* Brings in problems related to balance of payments* Increased volatility of markets* fall power of nation states* Loss of pagan identity* Shift of power to multinationalsResponse Strategies to Globalization forces for emerging market companies shielderExtenderDodgerContender1. Defender Strategy When pressure to globalise is low, topical anaesthetic companies exact the defense strategy that centralisees on leveraging local assets in the market segments where multinationals atomic number 18 pallid. 2. Extender strategy when companies posses emulous skills and assets that put forward be transferred abroad, companies crowd out focus on expanding to markets similar to home invertebrate foot utilise competencies create at home.3. Dodger strategy when pressure to globalize is blue, local companies have no option tho to dodge aspiration by cooperating through a joint venture or becoming a supplier or service provider change off to multinational enterprises e.g. Skoda Czech car manufacturing business sold to Volkswagen.4. Contender strategy companies that have high pressure to globalize andcompetitive advantages that can be leveraged overseas can aggressively compete by focusing on upgrading their capabilities in the niche segment to match multinationals globally ie. TATA IndiaConcepts of supranational personal credit line1. internationalist Trade exports of goodnesss and services to a aloof-based buyer ( upshoter) 2. planetary foodstuffing refers to marketing carried out by firms/companies across the national boarder line. 3. International Investment cross boarder transfer of resources to carry out business activities.4. International Management application of management concepts and techniques in a cross unsophisticated environment an modification to different affectionate-cultural, economic, wakeless, political and technological environments.5. International Business all those business activities which involve cross-border transactions of goods and services and resources between cardinal or much nations. 6. Global business conduct of business activities in several countries using a highly co-ordinate and maven strategy across the world.Types of International Business minutes* Transactions exchange of determine between buyer and seller typically involving intermediaries and currency as speciality of exchange. * Exchange of production inputs, components partially/nearly destroyed products, goods/services, ideas/know how.Boarders their significance* State boundaries denote sovereignty, citizenship (political authority), efficacious jurisdiction, security. When theres no boarder, theres no state * National assimilations, National personal identity* sparing Unit eroded due to globalization, economic transactions be chief(prenominal)ly home(prenominal). * Boundaries of mind and habit, boundaries argon psychological not just visible.How boarders make a differenceAs soon as you have different purifications, different contact forms, different legal structures, different valuate revenue environments, the complexity introduced by that is immense.The mind why businesses that expand overseas fail is they undervalue the complexity thats enlarged in an international organization.The Internationalization of Business* Bringing in new ideas* Moving across the boarders* Companies conduct value adding actitvities on a global home base, primarily to organize, source, manufacture and market. * A Level play field international activities appealing to all types of firms large or modest. Manufacturing and services sectors E.g. Banking, Transportation, Design, publicize and retailing.Nature of International Business* Value adding activities* Firms internationalise via experts, irrelevant result investment, licensing, and collaborative ventures. * Foreign portfolio investment less than 10%* Foreign Direct Investment to a greater extent than 10%Reasons for International Business blowup1. Market seeking motives* Marketing opportunities due to life style cycles* Uniqueness of products or services2. Economic motives* Economies of scale of measurement are achieved* Profit index* Spreading research and phylogenesis costs3. Strategic motives* Growth* Risk circleDifferences between Domestic and International Business* Economic environment* Social* Infrastructure* Legal* governmental* Competition* TechnologyThe four-spot riskinesss of International Business1. mystify- cultural risk occurs when a cultural mis say puts some benignant value at stake. * heathen differences* Negotiation patterns* Decision making styles* Ethical practices2. commercialised risk refers to a firms po campial loss or failure from poorly develop or executed business tactics. * Weak partners* operative problems* Timing of entry* Competitive intensity* scurvy execution of strategy3. bullion risk (financial risk) the risk of adverse fluctuations in exchange rates * Currency exposure* Asset evaluation* Foreign taxation* Inflation and transfer4. Coun try risk (political risk) refers to the potentially adverseeffects on federation operations and profitability caused by developments in political, legal and economic environments in a conflicting acres.Risks will forever and a day be present plainly can be managed Managers is such situations should * Anticipate the risks* Understand the implications thereof* direct pro-active action* Reduce adverse effects nigh risks are extremely challenging e.g. the einsteinium Asiatic Economic Crisis in 1998. It generated substantial commercial, currency and country risks.Participants in International Business1. Multinationals E.g. Kodak, Nokia, Samsung,Multinational Enterprises aver worldwide ne dickensrk of subsidiaries.2. Other participants* Small and metier sized enterprises In the regular army a small/medium enterprise sized entity is described as that having 500 or fewer employees. * Comprises of 90-95% of all firms in nigh countries .* Increasingly to a greater extent than(p renominal) SMEs get into in International Business.Why do firms internationalise?* Seek growth opportunities through market diversification * To earn higher(prenominal)(prenominal) margin profits* discover new ideas about products, services* Better service to customers that have relocated abroad * Be impending to supply sources* Benefit from global sourcing advantages* come across tractability in sourcing products* Gain access to better value factors of production* Develop economies of scale in sourcing, production, marketing and R&D * Confront international competitors more effectively or thwart the growth of competition in the home market. * Invest in a potentiallyrewarding business venture.What caused the East Asiatic Economic CrisisTheories of TradeAbsolute Advantage when a country is efficient in producing a goodness than any other country. Countries should therefore specialize in producing a product of which they are efficient in producing and then batch such product for goods produced by other countries.Output per hour of labour using the like resources Cloth WheatCountry A 100 200Country B 250 one hundred sixtyTotal Interpretation clearlyThe Political parsimony of International TradeThe political reality of International Trade is that while legion(predicate) nations are nominally committed to put subject tidy sum, they tend to intervene in international trade to protect the engagement of politically historic convocations.Instruments of trade policy are tariffs, subsidies, import quota, voluntary export restraints, local issue unavoidablenesss, administrative policies and anti-dumping duties.* A tariff is a tax levied on imports that effectively raises the cost of imported products relative to domestic products. * Specific tariffs are levied as a wintry charge for separately unit of a good imported. * Ad valorem tariffs are levied as a dimension of the value of the imported good.* A subsidy is a government payment to a domestic producer. Subsidieswhitethorn take form of a tax break, gold grants, low- kindle loan. * Subsidies help domestic firms by lowering production costs * Help them compete against foreign imports* Gain export markets* Government pay for subsidies by burdensome individuals(consumers)* Import Quota is a direct restriction on the quantity of some good that whitethorn be imported into a country.* Voluntary export restraints are quotas on trade imposed by the export country, typically at the request of the importing countrys government.* A local content requirement demands that some specific fraction of a good be produced domestically.* The requirement can be in physical or value terms.* Local content requirements benefit domestic producers and jobs, scarcely consumers face higher prices.* Administrative policies are informed bureaucratic formulas knowing to make it difficult for imports to enter a country. For suit Japanese usage inspectors insist on spring a large proportion of show up packages to inhibit for pornographic materials. * This process that can delay express packages has made it difficult for FedEx to expand its global cargo ships services to Japan. * These policies hurt consumers by denying access to by chance superior foreign products.* Dumping is selling goods in foreign markets down the stairs their cost of production/ jolly market value. * Anti-dumping policies are designed to punish foreign firms that engage in dumping. Dumping is viewed as a method by which firms unload excess production in foreign markets sometimes at prices below the cost of production.* The goal is to protect domestic producers from raw foreign competition. * US firms that believe aforeign firm is dumping can file a complaint with the government. * If the complaint has merit, antidumping duties, excessively known as countervailing duties may be imposed.Why Governments intervene?fundamentally there are three reasons Political, Economic and cultural1. Political reasons include* Protecting jobs and industries from foreign competition, trade controls usually result in higher price for consumers. * National Security defense related industries a great deal get this kind of protection. * Retaliations are threats used as bargaining tasks to help open foreign markets and force trading partners to play by the rules. It is usually in retaliation to a trading partners trade policy. Protect consumers from unsafe products.2. Economic Reasons* The infant industry argument(protecting them)* Strategic trade policy policies that government enact to ensure that firs-mover advantages are reserved for local firms in industries where substantial economies of scale exist.3. Cultural Motives friendless influence causes great distress and can force governments to axisk imports. Many countries have laws that protect their media programing for cultural reasons for example in Canada about 35% of music played on TV and piano tuner must be of Canadian orig in.Economic IntegrationThe abolition of trade restraints between nations. It is the growing economic interdependence that results when countries within a geographic region form an alliance aimed at reducing barriers to trade and investment.* Three Levels of Economic Integration* Global trade liberalization by GATT or WTO* regional advantageous treatment of section countries in the group ie.SACU, SADC, COMESA ,etc. * bilaterally symmetric preferential treatment between two countries * regional and Bilateral agreements are against the MFN clause (normal trading relations), but allowed under WTO. * Visit www.wto.org for regional trade agreements.Regional Economic Integration* Growing economic interdependence that results when countries within a geographic region form an alliance aimed at reducing barriers of trade and investment. nearly 40% of the world trade now occurs via economic axis of rotation agreement.Cooperating nations obtain* Increased product choices, productivity, li ving pecuniary standards * low-spiriteder prices and* More efficient resource use.Economic BlocA geographical area that consists of two or more countries that agree to pursue economic integration by reducing tariffs and other restrictions to cross-border flow of products, services, capital and in more advanced stages, labor.Examples EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, APEC, ASEAN and many others.thither are five possible levels of economic integration* Customs uniting* Common Market* Economic join* Political Union1. informal Trade area countries agree to reduce tariffs but not eliminate everythingThe simplest most universal arrangement, member countries agree to gradually eliminate formal trade barriers within the axis, while severally member country maintains an independent international trade policy with countries outside the bloc. Eg. NAFTA2. Customs Union similar to a free trade area except that the members harmonize their trade policies toward non-member countries, by enacting com mon tariff and non-tariff barriers on imports from non-member countries. E.g. SACU(Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, SA). Members have a revenue pool and it is dual-lane match to how much each has contributed.3. Common Market (single market)- give care a custom trades union except products, services and factors of production such as capital, labor, and technology can move freely among the member countries. E.g. COMESA requires much cooperation among the member countries on labor and economic policies.4. Economic Union like a common market, but members in addition aim for common fiscal and monetary policies, standard commercial regulations, affectionate policy, etc. E.g. the EU is mournful toward economic union by forming a monetary union with a single currency the EURO.5. Political Union perfect unification of all policies by a common organization. Submersion of all sever national bases e.g. former USSR * Remains ideal, but insofar to be achieved.The atomic number 63an Union What is the European Union?* Shared values liberty, democracy, regard, for human rights and fundamental freedom, and the rule of law.European Coal and Steel Community* In the aftermath of the World War II, the aim was to see to it peace among Europes victorious nations an pack them together as equals, cooperatingwithin overlap institutions. * found on a plan by french foreign minister Robert Schuman. * Six founding states/countries Belgium, the national Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands signed a treaty. explanation of the EU* treaty of Paris (1951)Formation of ECSCTreaty of Rome (1957)Formation of ECC (European Economic Community) -initially free trade area, becoming a custom union in 1967.* The Stockholm convention in 1960 created EFTA by seven countries to counteract ECC. * Single European mask of 1993* mental institution of single market (common Market) effective on January 1 1993 * Rename EEC by EU (15 members)* Treaty of Maastricht (1 992)* Creation of an economic union, EMU* cheek of European Central Bank on July 1998* design of a common currency, Euro on 1 January 1999 * Circulation of Euro on 1 January 2002.The EU featuresA full-fledged Economic Union1. Market access tariffs and most non-tariff barriers have been eliminated. 2. Common market removed barriers to cross national movement of production factors i.e labor, capital and technology. 3. Trade rules eliminated customs procedures and regulations, streamlining transportation and logistics within Europe. 4. Standards harmonization harmonizing technical standards, regulations, and enforcement procedures on products, services and commercial activities. 5. Common fiscal, monetary, taxation and brotherlyThe European Union Today* 27 members* untried members e.g. Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic are low-cost manufacturing sites. * Peugeot, Citroen(france) factories in Czech Republic. * Hyundai (South Korea) Kia plant in Slovakia.* Suzuki (Japan) factory in Hungary.* Most new EU entrants are one-time satellites of the Soviet Union, and have economic growth rates for higher than the 15 Western European counterparts. * Developing economies e.g Romania, Bulgaria, may take decades of foreign aid to catch up.Four Institutions that govern the EU1. Council of the European Union the main determination-making body. Makes decisions on economic policy, budgets, and foreign policy and gateway of new member countries.2. European Commission represents the interest of the EU as a whole. Proposes legislation and is creditworthy for implementing decisions of the Parliament and the council.3. European Parliament up to 732 representatives, compass joint sessions each month. Three main functions are * Devise EU legislation* Supervise EU Institutions* Make decisions on the EU budget.NAFTA (Canada, Mexico, USA)NAFTA passage (1994) was facilitated by the maquilladora program, in which US firms allocated manufacturing plants just South of the USA border to access low-cost labor without meaty tariffs.NAFTA has* Eliminated tariffs and most non-tariff barriers for products and services. * Established trade rules and uniform customs procedures. * Instituted investment rules and intellectual property rights. *Provided for dispute settlements for investment, unsportsmanlike pricing, labor issues, and the environment.NAFTA Results* Trade among the members more than tripled, and now exceeds 1 trillion per year. * In the early 1990s Mexicos tariffs averaged 100% and gradually.How the Mexican Economy benefited from NAFTA* Mexico exports to the US grew from 50 jillion to over 100 billion per year. * attack Canada and the US helped launch many Mexican firms in industries such as electronics, cars, textiles, medical products, and services. * Yearly US and Canadian investment in Mexico rose from 4 billion in 1993 to nearly 20 billion by 2006. * Mexicos per capita income rose to about 11 000 in 2007, making it the richest country in Latin Am erica. *Why nations pursue economic integration1. flourish market size* Greatly increases the scale of the market place for firms inside the economic bloc. Eg. Belgium has a universe of just 10 million the EU has a population of nearly 500 mil. * Consumers can access much bigger selection of products and services.2. Achieve economies of scale and enhance productivity* Bigger market facilitates economic scale* Internationalization inside the bloc helps firms learn to compete more effectively outside the bloc. * project and other inputs allocated more efficiently among the member countries, bakshishing(p) to lower consumer prices.3. Attract investment from outside the bloc* Compared to investing in stand-alone countries, foreign firms prefer to invest in countries that are part of an economic integration bloc. E.g General Mills, Samsung, TATA invested heavily in the EU.4. involve stronger defensive and political posture* Provide member countries with a stronger defensive posture relative to other nations and world regions, an original motive of the EU.Factors contributing to the victor of Regional Integration1. Economic Stability the more similar the economies of the member states, the more apparent the bloc will succeed. Eg. Wage rates, economic stability e.g. SADC, EU2. Political Stability similarity in political systems is advert. Countries should share similar aspirations and a willingness to surrender national self-reliance e.g EU3. Similarity of culture and lecture Helpful but not absolutely necessary.4. geographical proximity facilitates transportation of products, labor, and other factors. Neighboring countries tent to share a common history, culture and vocabulary E.g. NAFTA, EUConsequences of Regional Integration* Trade Creation as barriers fall, trade is generated inside the bloc. * Trade digression as within the bloc trade becomes more attractive, member countries discontinue some trade with non-member countries. * gist effect N ational patterns of trade are altered. More trade occurs inside the bloc. * A concern a bloc might become an economic bulwark rangeing to more within-bloc trade and less between bloc trade can harm global free trade. * Loss of National Identity increased cross-boarder contact makes members more similar to each other E.g. in response Canada has restricted the ability of US movie and TV producers to invest in the Canadian film and broadcasting industries.* Sacrifice of Autonomy in later stages of regional integration a underlying authority isset up to manage the blocs affairs. Members must sacrifice some autonomy to the central authority, such as control over their own economy. E.g Britain in the EU. * Transfer of power to advantaged firms can concentrate economic power in the men of fewer larger firms, often in the most advantaged member countries. * Failure of small or debile firms as trade and investment barriers fall, protection is eliminated that antecedently shielded sm aller or weaker firms from foreign competitions. * in corporal restructuring and job loss Increased competitive pressures and corporate restructuring may lead to role player layoffs or re-assigning employees to distant locations, disrupting giveers lives and entire communities.* Internationalization by firms inside the bloc internationalization gets easier after regional integration. * Rationalization of operations managers develops strategies and value-chain activities suited to the region as whole, not individual countries, by restructuring and consolidation company operations. The goal is to reduce costs and redundancy, increase centralise distribution, instead of decentralization to individual countries. * Mergers and acquisitions Economic blocs lead to mergers and acquisitions, the tendering of one firm to buy another, or of two or more firms to merge and form acquisitions.Cross Cultural risk* A situation or event where a cultural mis-communication puts some human valu e at stake. * Arises when we enter environments characterized by unknown languages and unique value systems, beliefs, attitudes and ports. * One of the four major risks in international business.Manifestations of Cross-Cultural risk* ethnocentric orientation using our own culture as the standard for judging other cultures. * Polycentric orientation a mindset in which the manager develops a greater affinity with the country in which he/she does business than the home country. * Geocentric orientation a global mindset in which the manager is able to understand a business or market without postulate to national boundaries. * Managers should strive for ageocentric orientation.Definitions of grow* Incorporates both objective and subjective elements.* Objective aspects of culture include tools, roads, television programme, architecture and other physical artifacts. * Subjective aspects include norms and values, ideas, customs and other coreful symbols. * Hofstede, a well-known Du tch organizational anthropologist views culture as a collective mental programming of mass and the software of the mind how we think and how we reason. floriculture Is* Not right or wrong it is relative. in that respect is no cultural absolute, different nationalities simply encompass the world differently. * Not about individual behavior culture is about groups. It refers to a collective phenomenon of shared values and meaning. * Not inherited culture is derived from the social environment. We are not born with a shared set of values and attitudes, we learn and acquire as we grow up. Culture is learned* Socialization the process of learning the rules and behavioral patterns appropriate to ones given society. Eg. Cultural learning* Acculturation the process of adjusting and adapting to a culture other than ones own. Commonly experienced by expatriate workers.* Culture is like an ice-berg-above the surface. sure characteristics are visible, below the surface is massive base of assumptions, attitudes and values that strongly influence decision making relationships, conflict and other dimensions of business.Cross-cultural growth is preponderating in Managerial tasks. Examples* Developing products and services* communication and interacting with foreign business partners * Negotiating and structuring international business ventures * Interacting with modern and potential customers* Preparing advertising and promotional materials.Cross cultural differences may create challenges* Teamwork what should managers do if foreign and domestic nationals dont get along? * lifetime employment workers in Japan often await to work for the same firm throughout their careers How should foreign firms handle that? * Pay for performance system In China and Japan, a persons age is important in promoting workers.Yet how do such workers perform when merit performance-based measures are used? * organizational Structure preferences for centralized, bureaucratic struct ures may deter study sharing. * Union-management relationships workers in European firms enjoy a more equal status with managers. * Attitudes towards ambiguity if youre uncomfortable working with minimum guidance or winning independent action, you may have difficulty registration into some cultures.Three approaches to interpreting culture* Metaphors refer to a distinctive tradition or institution strongly associated with a society a kick the bucket to deciphering attitudes, values and behaviors. * Stereotypes are generalizations about a group of people that may or may not be factual, often over looking real, deeper differences. * An accent is an human face whose symbolic meaning is different from its material meaning.The Nature of Stereotypes* Are often erroneous and lead to unjustified conclusions about others. * Still most people employ stereotypes, either consciously or unconsciously, because they are an easy means to judge situations and people. * There are real dif ferences among groups and societies, we should examine descriptive behaviors rather than gauge stereotypes. * An examplesome Latin Americans procrastinate via the manana syndrome.E.T. residences High and Low context culturesLow Context* Rely on elaborate communicatory explanations putting much emphasis on verbalise words. * Tend to be in northern Europe and North America which place central importance on the efficient delivery of messages. * Communication is direct and explicit dont beat around the bush.High Context* Establish trust stolon* Personal relations and goodwill are value* Agreements punctuate trust* Negotiations slow and ritualistic* dialect is on non-verbal messages and use communication as a means to promote smooth harmonious relationships. * choose an indirect, polite, face-saving style that emphasizes a mutual intellect of care and respect for others, careful not to shame or offend others. * It is difficult for Japanese people to say No when expressing disa greement. Much more likely to say it is different an ambiguous response. * In East Asian cultures, showing impatience, frustration, irritation, or anger disrupts capital of New Hampshire and is considered rude and offensive. * To succeed in Asian cultures, it is vital to notice non verbal signs and body language.Hofstedes compartmentalization of National culture1. Individualism Versus Collectivism refers to whether a person primarily functions as an individual or within a group. 2. Power Distance describes how a society deals with inequalities in power that exists among people. 3. Uncertainty escape refers to the extent to which people can tolerate risk and uncertainty in their lives. 4. Masculinity Vs Femininity1.1 individualistic Society ties among people are relatively loose,each person tends to focus on his/her own self interests. E.g Australia, Canada and the UK 1.2 Collectivist Societies ties among individuals are more important than individualism business is condu cted in the context of groups where everyones norms are strongly considered. E.g China, Panama, and South Korea.2.1 High Power outgo societies have substantial gaps between the powerful and the weak are relatively indifferent to inequalities and allow them to grow. E.g. Guatemala, Malaysia, the Philippines.2.2 Low-power surmount socities have minimal gaps between the powerful and weak. E.g. Denmark and Sweden governments instituted tax and social welfare systems that ensure their nationals are relatively equal in terms of income and power.* Social stratification affects power withdrawnness. In Japan almost everybody belongs to the pose class, while in India the upper stratum controls decision making and buying power. * In high distance firms, autocratic management styles focus power at the top3.1 High Uncertainty avoidance societies create institutions that minimize risk and ensure financial security, companies emphasize stable careers and produce many rules to regulate worke r actions and minimize ambiguity.3.2 Low-uncertainty avoidances societies socialize their members to accept and become modify to uncertainty managers are entrepreneurial and comfortable with risk taking, decisions are made quickly, people accept each day as it comes.5.1 Masculine cultures value competitiveness, assertiveness, ambitions and the assemblage of wealth. Both men and women are assertive, focused on career and earning money, and may care little for others. E.g Australia and Japan. The US is a moderately masculine society, as are Hispanic cultures that display a zest for action, bodacious and competitiveness. In business, the masculinity dimension manifests asself-confidence, pro activeness and leadership.5.2 Feminine cultures emphasize nurturing roles, interdependence among people, and affectionateness for less fortunate people for both men and women. e.g. Scandinavian countries welfare systems are highly unquestionable and education is subsidized.Subjective Dimens ions of cultureSubjective dimensions values and attitudes, manners and customs, deal versus relationship orientation, perceptions of time, perceptions of space and religion.* value represent a persons vox populi about what is good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable, important or unimportant and normal or abnormal. * Attitudes and preferences are developed based on values, and are similar to opinions, except that attitudes are often unconsciously held and may not have a sensible basis. * Prejudices are rigidly held attitudes, usually unfavorable and aimed at particular groups of people. Examples values in North America, Federal Europe, and Japan hard work, punctuality and the acquisition of wealth. recognise Vs Relationship Culture* Deal Oriented cultures- managers focus on the task at hand are impersonal, typically uses contacts and want to just get down to business. Example, Australia, North Europe, and North America.* Relationship Oriented cultures- managers have affiliations with people, rapport and get to know the other ships company in business interactions, relationships are more important than the deal trust is highly valued in business, agreements. Example, China, Japan, Latin America etc. It took nine days for Volkswagen to negotiate an automobile factory in China.address and Customs* Manners and Customs are ways of behaving and conducting oneself in public and business situations. * Informal cultures democratic in which people are equal and work together cooperatively * Formal cultures status, hierarchy, power and respect are very important. * Varying Customs eating habits, mealtimes, work hours and holidays, drinking, appropriate behavior at social gatherings (handshaking, bowing and kissing), gift-giving (complex), roles of women.Religion* A system of common beliefs or attitudes concerning a being or system of thought people consider to be scared, divine, or highest truth as well as the ethical motive codes, values, traditions, and ritua ls associated with this system. * Influences culture, and therefore business and consumer behavior. * Example The protestant work ethic emphasizes hard work, individual achievement and experience that people can control their environment the underpinnings for development of capitalismLanguage as a profound dimension of culture* The mirror or expression of culture, essential for communication provides insight into culture. * Linguistic proficiency is a great asset in International Business. * Language has verbal and non verbal (unspoken, facial expressions and gestures) * There are nearly 7000 active languages including 2000 in Africa.Technology, the lucre and Culture* Technological advances are a key determinant of culture and cultural change more leisure time, and computers, multimedia, and communications systems that encourage convergence in global culture. * The death of distance refers to the demise of the boundaries that once separated people, due to modern communications, information, and transportation technologies more homogenized cultures are developed. * The internet also promotes the airing of culture, with rapidly growing numbers of internet users.Are cultures converging?The concept of SovereigntySovereignty meaning Self Rule is when a state or government is able to make and enforce laws within its boundaries without interference from foreign nations. It is also connected to the ability of a country to guarantee the best interest of its own citizens.How does Globalization affect sovereignty? treat the effect of Globalization on National culture1. Stripped us of our culture since people become more attached to western culture and lose their ways of doing things.Critically evaluate various dimensions of Economic globalization and their impacts on business enterprises explain how it is touched and give examples.1. Globalization of Production increased mobility of the factors of production has changed traditional specialization roles2. Globaliz ation of Competition competition with international businesses has intensified and therefore cost simplification is encouraged to improve efficiency.3. Globalization of markets markets have become easily accessible, allowing for expansion and growth. Goods are made of a standard level since customers worldwide have the same tastes and preferences.4. Globalization of Technology it has advanced rapidly leadership to shorter production cycles. It also makes managing a business more effective and efficient. Advancements in technology have also become difficult tomaintain due to financial constraints for some businesses.5. Globalization of Industries they have the options of putting up shops anywhere in the global village, giving customers a variety of choices in terms of goods and services.Convergence speech together two or more thingsGlobalization putting everything into one village.